MEDIA, POWER AND POLITICAL CULTURE

There are four factors of change that have affected media, power and political culture:

1.       The changing character of political publicity and news management: Contemporary television systems with added visual performance have made television a ‘theatre of political performance’. It is not only a ‘theatre of voices’ but also one of faces, bodies and actions.  Politicians and their aides work to get their actions and  their views into the news frame in the most positive possible way and try to limit the impact of opposing views or the damage that follows from reporting of ‘bad events’ that reflect negatively upon their policies and decisions. Television has become a crucial space within which aspects of the political contest become visible and heard by the general public.

2.       The changing profile and tone of political journalism within a changed media economy: Political mediation, including that through journalism, is reflecting some of the broader changes in the media industry, as it becomes more market-driven, competitive and linked to the provision of entertainment. As there is increased emphasis on political personality, there is also increased scope for stories of scandal and flow of political gossip. Combinations of traditional ‘hard’ and new ‘soft’ stories and the extensive use of Internet-based sources, together with email linkage, greatly increases the number of informal routes through which a story can develop. Thus, the relationship between publicity and journalism is an interactive one involving uncertainty and struggle in contributing to relative power, benefit and concession.

3.       Shifts in the nature of ‘citizenship’, in the way that people relate to their rights and obligations within the political system and use the media in this relation: Due to economic development and shifts in social structure and popular culture, the relationship of ordinary people to the official political process has changed in many democratic countries. The increasing emphasis on consumer identity, purchase of goods and services, are significant. The ‘citizen’ role and the ‘consumer’ role have been brought into new kinds of alignment or convergence due to changes in the economic character of everyday life. This has led to a stronger emphasis on ‘consumer identity’.

4.       The consequences of new communications technology: New media technology like television, with its multi-channel system, the internet, etc, play a vital role in the propagation of politics. e.g. Today bloggers have wider independent use of information and commentary to their story building. The broad idea of ‘political culture’ is a useful one for relating different elements in the complex politics-media-people pattern. It gives emphasis to questions of value and meaning and to the baselines of popular experience that the activities of politics and of the media help form and from which they also take their cues and fashion their appeals.

Ref: Media, Power and Political Culture – John Corner in Media Studies – Eoin Devereux,  Sage Publication, 2007.

PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE & TREATY OF VERSAILLES

PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE

The First World War came to an end with the Paris Peace Conference (1919). The representatives of almost all the countries of Europe met at Paris to draw up the peace treaty, but in reality, everything was monopolized by the representatives of the four powers, England, France, Italy and America. President Wilson of America, Prime Minister Clemenceau of France, Lloyd George, Prime Minister of England and Orlando of Italy were the big four of the Peace Conference.

The Paris Peace Conference was made up of five treaties. These were:

The treaty of Versailles – between the Allies and Germany.

The treaty of St.Germaine – between the Allies and Austria.

The treaty of Trianon – between the Allies and Hungary.

The treaty of Neuilly – between the Allies and Bulgaria.

The treaty of Sevres – between the Allies and Turks.

TREATY OF VERSAILLES

The treaty of Versailles is the longest on record. It was signed by Germany on the 28^th of June 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles. The terms of the treaty were dictated. The German delegation was not allowed to discuss it with the allies. They were simply called to receive it and sign it. The chief provisions of the treaty were as follows:

-        Germany was subjected to a huge war reparation of 300 crore dollars.

-        Germany lost the territories of Alsace and Lorraine to France

-        A lot of territories were taken away from her

-        Germany lost all her colonies. These were distributed among the allies

-        The main aim of the allies was to destroy the military strength of the Germans so the German army was to be reduced to 1-lakh men and officers.

-        The number of guns and battleships were reduced and no submarines to be built

-        The German navy was destroyed

-        German industries were destroyed

-        Germany was charged with war guilt

-        As a guarantee to the fulfillment of the treaty, the Allies were to occupy the left bank of Rhine for a period of fifteen years.

CRITICISM OF THE TREATY OF VERSAILLES

-        The terms of the treaty of Versailles were very severe.

-        There was no representative from the defeated nations. So there were no negotiations.

-        The treaty of Versailles humiliated the Germans. As this treaty was forced on her she started nursing a feeling of revenge, which later leads to the rise of Nazism.

-        The treaty sowed the seeds of the Second World War.

MEDIA & DIASPORA

A diaspora (comes from the Greek word ‘diaspeirein’ which means ‘scattering of seeds’) is a scattered population with a common origin in a smaller geographic area. Diasporas are viewed as comprising members of ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious groups who reside in a number of countries to which they or their ancestors migrated. The identities of these groups are formed over time by complex historical, social, and cultural relationships within the group and with other groups. It is characterized by practice of ancestral customs, language, religious practices and marriage patterns and ease of communication between various parts of the dispersed community.

Communities scattered around the world establish contact with each other and the homeland. Various modes of communication such as postal services, telephone, radio, email, internet, film, television etc have been used over time by diasporic members to keep in touch.

Ethnic Media – While some migrants lost touch with their homeland others almost completely assimilated into larger societies into which they settled. With the development of communication technology, even members of earlier generations who had lost touch with their diasporas now revived relations with the help of new media. Thus they maintained aspects of their ancestral customs and traditions, forms of music and art and at the same time began to integrate into their new settlements.

Newspapers are the most common form of ethnic media with large variations in the form, quality and frequency. Some have well established dailies that compete with mainstream papers; these print media usually have full-scale production facilities and strong advertising revenues.  A good example of this is Diasporic Chinese newspapers such as Ming Pao, Sing Tao and The World Journal. There are estimated to be 55 million ‘overseas Chinese’ living outside China and they are well served in Chinese languages by a variety of media, such as, newspapers, radio, television, film, music and the internet.

Satellite television provides remarkable opportunities for diasporic communities. Al Jazeera has in recent years turned out to be a popular transnational Arabic-language broadcaster. The commercial success of ‘Bollywood’ (Mumbai’s Film Industry) has become known for annually producing the largest number of films in the world. It has responded by including storylines and characters that reflect Indian diaspora. Strong diasporic subscriber bases exist for competing channels such as Zee, Sony, Star Plus and B4U, all of which carry material from ‘Bollywood’. Cable and satellite television providers around the world have realized the viability of ethnic channels and are making them an integral part of their services.

Internet based media suits the needs of diasporic communities the best. Apart from the increasing numbers of linguistic fonts that can be accommodated through developments in software, the structures of electronic systems are able to support ongoing communication in the widely-separated transnational groups. The contents of diasporic electronic communications largely consist of cultural heritage, genealogical, religious, and institutional information.

Thus we can say that print media, satellite television and the internet have provided unique opportunities for inter-continental communities to develop worldwide communication networks. Diasporic connections have become integral to the networks of transnational trade and thus become an intrinsic feature of contemporary international relations and key participants in the contemporary unfolding of modernity.

Reference: Media and Diaspora by Karim H. Karim in Media Studies by Eoin Devereux, Sage Publications Ltd, 

STEPS IN CONDUCTING RESEARCH

The following are the steps involved in conducting research:

1. Selection of the problem – Some researchers are able to choose and concentrate on a research area that is interesting to them. Others come to be identified with studies of specific types, such as those concerning children and media, violence, newspaper readership, advertising or communications law. Researchers investigate small pieces of a puzzle to obtain a broad picture of their research area. Some researchers can be identified with specific approaches to research such as focus groups or historical analysis. In the private sectors, researchers generally do not have the flexibility to select topics or questions to investigate. Instead, they conduct studies to answer questions raised by management or the area studied by the company – e.g. NGOs. Selecting a topic is a concern for many beginning researchers. Primary sources can be used.

1. Professional Journals / Academic Journals – The articles in these may provide ideas for research topics.

2. Magazines and Periodicals – These articles tend to eliminate the tedious technical jargon and are good sources for problems and hypotheses. These sources also provide interesting perspectives on complex problems in communication and many times raise interesting questions that media researchers can pursue.

3. Research summaries – Professional research organizations periodically publish summaries that provide a close look at major research areas in various fields. These summaries are useful for obtaining information about research subjects because they survey a wide variety of studies.

4. The Internet – brings the world to a researcher’s fingertips and must be considered whenever the goal is to find a topic to investigate. Search engines such as Google, Infoseek etc provide a huge number of possible research topics.

5. Everyday situations – Each day people are confronted with various types of communication via radio, television, newspapers, magazines, personal discussions, etc. These can be excellent sources of topics for researchers who take an active part in analyzing them. E.g. are billboard effective in communicating information about products? / how many commercials in a row can people watch on TV or hear on the radio before the commercials lose their effect? / Why are commercials louder than regular programming? / What is the appeal of ‘reality’ shows on TV?

6. Archive data – data archives (at University) are valuable sources of ideas for researchers. Historical data may be used to investigate questions different from those that the data were originally intended to address. For e.g. rating books provide information about audience size and composition for a particular period in time, but a researcher may use this data for historical tracking or prediction of audience in the future. This process is known as Secondary analysis. Secondary analysis provides an opportunity for researchers to evaluate otherwise unavailable data, saves time and resources.

2. Formulation of the problem – The researcher must single out the problem which he / she wants to study. The problem to be investigated must be defined clearly as this helps to differentiate relevant data from irrelevant data.

3. Survey of literature – The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected to the problem that has to be studied.

4. Development of a working hypotheses – Working hypotheses is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test the logical empirical consequences of the study. This working hypothesis should be developed as it provides a focal point for research.

5. Preparing the research design – The research design has to be prepared, i.e. the researcher has to state the conceptual structure within which the research has to be conducted. This includes the time available for research, the cost factor, availability of information, etc.

6. Determining sample design – The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is known as the sample design. Sample design is a definite plan determined before any data is actually collected.

7. Collecting the data – it is very essential to collect data that are appropriate. There are different ways of collecting data. For e.g. through observation, interviews, questionnaires, etc.

8. Execution – The researcher should see that the project is executed in a systematic manner and in time

9. Analysis of data – The data that has been collected has to be analysed with the help of various statistical means.

10. Hypothesis testing – The researcher has to test the hypothesis which he / she had formulated earlier and see if the facts support the hypothesis or are contrary to it.

11. Generalizations and interpretations – If the hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible to arrive at generalizations, that is to build a theory.

12. Preparation of report – Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him / her.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

There are four types or categories

1. interpersonal
2. intrapersonal
3. Group communication
4. Mass communication

1. Interpersonal – Interpersonal communication is between two persons. It can be

i.                 Face to face

ii.               Machine assisted

Face to face – interpersonal communication means face to face communication, dialogue or conversation between two people without the intervention of machines. This conversation is direct, personal and intimate. In such communication the sender and the receiver are generally within one anothers physical presence and the communication is not only by word of mouth but also by facial expressions, gestures, etc. e.g. talking to your parents at home or talking to your friends, classmates or teacher in college, talking to a doctor or shopkeeper.

Machine assisted – in this communication two or more persons communicate with the help of a mechanical or an electronic device. E.g. talking on phone or cell phone, pager, internet, fax etc.

Merits and demerits of face to face to communication

-        This communication does not cost anything

-        Feed back is immediate

-        It is more persuasive and influential because it involves not only words and gestures but also expressions and human emotions. E.g. companies employees, door to door sales man for advertising their product.

-        It has minimum disturbance but to linguistic barriers face to face communication may not be effected.

Merits and demerits of machine assisted communication

-        In case of defect in machine there will be disturbance and noise

-        The machine has to be purchased

-        Feedback may not be immediate depending on availability of the receiver

-        Machine assisted communication depends on energy sources like electricity, light, sound, papers, etc.

-        If there is a scarcity there cannot be machine assisted, interpersonal communication

Role of interpersonal communication in mass communication

Interpersonal communication plays an important role in mass communication. It becomes the first source of information in significant events, local news as well as national news is easily carried by word of mouth

2. Intrapersonal – Talking to oneself

Sometimes we talk to ourselves when we are alone or when we dream.

Day dreams or night dreams – in intrapersonal communication a person either dreams, reflects, contemplates or meditates. It can also take place according to William E Francois, ‘ If it involves internal transmission by means of signs or symbols and such internalization may be more common than most of tus imagine’. Our conversation with the divine or god is said to be intrapersonal communication. Such experience can be enjoyed in a temple, mosques, church, in a solitary place or in natural surrounding.

3. Group communication – a group is few people interacting with one another in such a way that each person influences and is influenced by other persons. E.g. when there is a domestic problem, family members get together and solve it. There are various kinds of group communication.

i.                 face to face

ii.               Machine assisted group communication

        

           A healthy combination of both may be heard or watched audio visually on

           radio, television with serials like national geographic etc. In group communication, small or big groups come together for a specific objective they give ideas, discuss, discover solutions to problems. Committees, conferences where people interact with one another are examples of group communication.

    

          Merits and demerits of group communication

-        benefits from combined experiences which provide better understanding as well as information to a group

-        greater chances of misunderstanding if there is no moderator or chair person to guide the group

-        feed back is difficult to measure as it takes time to clarify meanings and responses.

4. Mass Communication – means communicating with thousands of people and sharing with them views, ideas, information, experiences and entertainment through a network of communication – radio, television, cinemas, internet, mobile phones, etc.

      Mass communication is defined as ‘ a process by which a complex organization with the aid of one or two machines producers and transmits public messages that are directed at large audiences’ – Joseph Dominic

         Need and significance of mass communication in modern society

-        Different outlooks and lifestyles of the people – the 20^th century has brought about a total transformation.

-        Government programs and policies can be communicated and the follow up action can be made known to the people trhough mass media

-        Complaints of the people can be addressed through mass media

-        Today mass communication is being studied as an independent discipline which has influence on sociology, economics, politics, literature, performing arts and electronic media which makes it both interesting as well as instructive

-        Corruptive and constructive influence on young minds – Mass communication can be a servant as well as a master and it depends on the individual who makes use of it.  E.g. Films on TV as well as other programs can be used to increase thinking and imagination but the adverse effect is seen on younger generations where crime rate has increased.

-        Educative values or social progressive quality of mass media – it plays a dynamic role in bringing about changes in society. The technical means may be used for constructive or destructive purposes for which media itself cannot be blamed.

   

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

The success of communication depends upon the free flow of messages from the sender to the receiver without any kind of barrier. Most often communication fails because of certain barriers which can be classified as

a. Psychological barriers

b. Cultural barriers

c. Linguistic barriers

d. Physical Barriers

e. Mechanical barriers

a. Psychological Barriers

Human mind plays a very important role in the success or failure of communication all messages find their meaning differ in different socio-cultural environment.

i.                 Absence of common experiences of both sender and receiver – The message originates in the idea which starts in the mind of the communicator and is produced in a message. The meaning of the message should be shared by the sender and the receiver. For this purpose the experiences of both the sender and the receiver are important.

ii.                Absence of common frame of mind – A receiver has his own point of view and accordingly judges or evaluates the statements of the communicator. Real communication is possible by altering the frame of mind, by listening to speaker from speaker’s point of view without any interruption.

iii.              Defensive Behavior on the part of the receiver – When an individual or a group feels that there is a threat to himself or his group he adopts defensive behavior. It is seen in the way a person reacts.

iv.              Impact of charisma – Emotions such as joy, sorrow, anger, etc. act as barriers to communication. It is impossible for anybody to receive messages or communicate in a state of terror, anger, excitement etc. Ones logic stops functioning and one cannot react

v.               Closed mind of the receiver – There are some educated persons who believe they know everything about everything. Thus they are not open to any new ideas.

vi.              Resistance to change – Generally a change is resisted if it affects an individual or a group.

b. Cultural Barriers

i.                 Heterogeneous population – In a country like India different languages, religious beliefs and practices create a complex situation and make the role of the communicator difficult.

ii.                Different Social perceptions – there are various cultural differences in society. This makes the task of the communicator difficult.

iii.              Poverty and illiteracy – Due to illiteracy a person may not read newspapers or magazines even if he can afford to buy.

Due to poverty an individual may not buy a radio or television and so he is deprived of audio visual communication. Electronic gadgets are expensive and not everyone can afford it.

c. Linguistic Barriers

       i.          Different interpretations of words in different countries – Words have different meanings to different persons in different context.

      ii.          Words with different spellings and meaning but sounding the same when pronounced.

    iii.          Use of unfamiliar words – Every branch of learning such as science, literature, journalism, law have their own terminology. Use of unfamiliar words can break down communication.

d. Physical Barriers

       i.          Competing Stimulus – Is when another conversation is going on within hearing distance, or loud music and traffic noise in the background disturbs communication. E.g. a plane passing overhead

      ii.          Environmental Stress – High temperature, humidity, poor ventilation etc. contribute to distortions in the sending and receiving of messages.

    iii.          Subjective Stress – Sleepiness, sleeplessness, ill health, effects of drugs and mood variations give rise to subjective stress which leads to difficulties in listening and interpretation

e. Mechanical Barriers

i.         Defect in instrument – Mechanical defects in the instrument prevent us from receiving communication properly. Defective telephones, radio and TV sets and printing machines that do not print clearly come in this category.

ii.                Language – It is important to speak properly when using an instrument or vehicle of communication. Long sentences, unnecessary use of negatives, fancy phrases, distract the attention of the listener and the message gets distorted.

iii.       Ignorance of the medium – if the receiver is not familiar with various media in communication the medium turns into a barrier. E.g. use of visual media like maps and charts are useless to those who do not know to read them.

SAMPLING

 Sampling is a technique of data collection. It is a process of drawing a sample from a ‘population’ or ‘universe’. A sample is a portion that is selected from the ‘universe’ or ‘population’. ‘Universe’ or ‘Population’ in this case refers to all the items in any field of inquiry.

In statistics, universe or population refers to all the individuals, events, things which a particular study wants to cover.

When a statistical investigation is carried out, it is known as a sample survey (enquiry). If the population is infinite, its complete study is impossible. Even if the population is finite, it is often possible to determine the characteristics of the population only on the basis of a sample. 

Objectives of sampling

a. Selecting a sample of adequate size.

b. Collecting the information

c. Making inferences (conclusions) about the population

Advantages of sampling

a. A sample survey is time saving and less expensive compared to a census survey.

b. A sample survey requires small administration organization because the field of survey is small, and also the staff needed is small as the amount of information to be collected and processed is small.

c. The results obtained from sampling method are accurate and reliable

d. Since the coverage is limited, detailed information can be obtained.

e. If the population is very large, sampling is generally the only method of study applicable.

Disadvantages of sampling

a. This method is not suitable where a high degree of accuracy is required

b. In the absence of expert investigators, the results obtained through this method cannot be relied upon.

c. This method is not suitable when there is lot of heterogeneity in the population

d. If due care is not taken in selection of sampling, the conclusions derived will be misleading.

Sampling method

There are two broad categories in sampling:

A. Probability Sampling

B. Non-Probability Sampling

a. PROBABILITY SAMPLING

This type of sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’. Under this sampling design, every item of the universe has an equal chance of being selected or being included in the sample. Under probability sampling we have the following types of sampling:

1. Random Sampling

This is the best known form of probability or chance of being selected regardless of the similarities or differences among them, as long as they are members of the same universe.

All that is required to conduct a random sample is to select persons without showing any bias for any kind of personal characteristics.

Accuracy of random sample depends on the accuracy of the sample frame. If some people are listed more than once, they have a greater probability of being selected. If other persons are omitted from the list, they will not be selected at all. In either of theses cases, the sampling will not be random.

Random sampling is used to obtain a sample that is most likely to be a representative of the population. In statistics, random has a technical meaning. It does not mean haphazard or unplanned. When items are selected by chance and not by choice, it is termed as a random sample. In other words, selection depends on chance, and for this reason it is known as chance selection.

The following methods are used for obtaining a random sample:

i. Lottery Method

ii. Table of random numbers

iii. Arrangement of all numbers in the same order, and every 5^th, 10^th, 100^th, etc. unit is selected.

One important property of random sampling is that the larger size of the sample, the more likely it will be closer to population.

Merits of random sampling

1. Since the selection of units in the sample depends entirely on chance, there is no possibility of personal bias affecting the results.

2. Compared to judgment sampling, random sampling represents the universe in a better way.

3. The margin of excess can be calculated because sampling error follow the principle of chance.

Thus random sampling has the advantage of cancelling out biases.

Limitations of random sampling

1. It requires a complete cataloged universe from which a sample is drawn. However, it is difficult to get such a list

2. At times the field of survey is wide, and therefore, it is a restriction geographically for random sampling

3. The size of the sample required to ensure satisfactory and reliable results is usually larger for random sampling rather than under stratified sampling.

2. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is divided into different groups or classes called strata and a sample is drawn from each stratum at random.

The purpose of stratification is to increase the efficiency of sampling by dividing a heterogeneous population in such a way that there is a great homogeneity within each strata and a marked difference between different strata.

A stratified sample is controlled so that it reflects exactly some known characteristic of the population. In stratified sampling everything is not left to chance. For eg in a public opinion poll the sample selected should reflect all different strata in the population – Hindus, Christians, Parsis, etc.

Stratified samples are rank ordered, such as professors are categorized into associate professors, full time professors, part time professors, assistant professors, etc. time and money are saved in stratified sampling.

Stratified sampling is not limited to only one variable; one can stratify two or more variables simultaneously. For e.g. one can also look into age group, gender, income group etc.

3. Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is formed by selecting one unit at random and then selection additional units at evenly spaced intervals, until the sample has been formed. This method is popularly used in those cases where a complete list of population is available. The list may be prepared in alphabetical, geographical, numerical or some other order. The most practical way is to select every 15^th name on the list or every 10^th house on the side of the street, etc. an element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.

Systematic sampling design is simple and convenient to adopt. The time and labour involved is relatively less and the results obtained are often satisfactory. If the population is sufficiently larger, systematic sampling can often yield satisfactorily results.

The main limitation of this method is that it becomes less representative if we are dealing with a population having hidden properties. Another limitation is that if the population is ordered, at times the characteristic investigator is interested in, may not be included.

4. Multi stage sampling or cluster sampling

Cluster sampling is also known as area sampling. It is mainly concerned with a particular geographical area or a particular aspect of population. Under this method a random selection is made of primary, intermediate and final unit from a given population. This method is carried out at different stages. At the first stages, units are selected by some suitable sampling method, then a sample is selected fro the first stage unit by some other sampling technique. Like this, there are stages which are added. E.g. if we want to take students from Delhi University, we may select colleges at the first stage, then select departments at the second stage and choose students at the third and final stage.

Merits

1. This method is used when the area of inquiry is wide

2. It saves time and money

Demerits

1. This method is complicated

2. It is less accurate.

B NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population has of being included in the sample. Here the selection of the sample is based on the choice of the investigator. In such sampling, personal element has a great chance of entering into the selection of the sample. The investigator may select a sample which shall yield favorable results to his point of view, and this can be a great disadvantage of this method. The advantage of non probability sampling is that it is less complicated, less expensive and can be done on spur of the moment basis. The various types of non probability sampling are as follows:

1. Convenience sampling or Accidental Sampling

In this type of sampling, the investigator chooses those people who are readily and easily accessible. For e.g. in a study on teenagers and their shopping preferences, the investigator could take a sample of teenagers staying in the vicinity. This method is not very accurate, but it is time and money saving.

Self Selection Sampling is used if you want people to participate on their own accord. 

2. Quota sampling

This is a type of judgment sampling, where the investigator uses his / her own judgment for selecting the sample. In this, quotas are set up according to some specified characteristic like occupation, education, age etc. Each interviewer is then asked to interview a certain number of persons. Here the selection of sample depends upon personal judgment for e.g. in a survey on people who listen to the radio, the interviewer may be told to interview 500 people living in a certain area, and out of every 100 person of the interview, 60 are supposed to be people who are service workers, 25 housewives, 15 youngsters etc.

The cost involved in quota sampling is relatively less, but there are many chances of personal biases which may depend on integrity, honesty and competence of the investigator.

3. Purposive or Judgment Sampling

In this method the investigator has complete freedom to choose the sample according to his wishes. The investigator chooses those units which he thinks are more representative of the universe. For e.g., if a sample of 20 students is to be selected from a class of 80 then the investigator will select those 20 students who in his opinion are most representative of that class.

Judgment sampling is used only when a small sample is to be selected, or when we want to study some unknown traits of the population or need to solve some sort of everyday problem or to make policy decisions. Judgment sampling can be used to arrive at solutions and \make decisions. Judgment sampling can be used to arrive at solutions and make decisions.

A disadvantage of this method is that even though it is simple, it is not scientific. Personal biases and prejudices of the investigator may come in the way of the study.

The success of this method depends upon how excellent is the judgment of the investigator. A good judgment will result in good representation of the population.

4. Snowball sampling

In recent years snowball sampling has become very important. This method of sampling is conducted in stages. In the 1^st stage a few persons having the required characteristics are identified and interviewed. These persons are then used as informants to identify other such people who qualify to be included in the sample.

 At the 2^nd stage, these persons who were suggested by the 1^st group are interviewed and who will in turn lead to the next some more people who will be interviewed for the 3^rd stage and so on.

For e.g. In a study on married women who work from home, in the first stage some such women will be selected, and later they will suggest other such married women who work from home to be interviewed for the next stage. This continues till the desired sample size gets collected by the researcher.

The term ‘snowball’ comes from the analogy of a snowball which begins small, but becomes bigger and bigger as it rolls downward.