LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT - INDIA

Local Self Government means a government elected by the local people to administrate local issues.

India practices different systems of local self government in rural and urban areas. In rural areas Local Self Government is called ‘Panchayati Raj’. In urban areas Local Self Government is called ‘Municipalities’.

Article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy specifies ‘The State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government’.

Panchayats and Municipalities existed in different parts of India even before passing the 73^rd and 74^th Amendment Acts in 1992. Prior to 1992, different parts of India followed different indigenous forms of Panchayats and Municipalities and hence there was no uniformity in structure and composition of local self-government across of different regions. The 73^rd and 74^th Amendment Acts constitutionalized Local Self Government and made it compulsory across India. It also introduced regulations on structures, processes and jurisdictions.

The Provisions of Panchayati Raj in India under the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992

1.       Strengthen Gram Sabha as the foundation of Panchayati Raj. Gram Sabha consists of people registered in the electoral role of a village with the area of a village panchayat.

2.       Establishment of three tier system of panchayat: Gram Panchayat at village level, Zilla Panchayat (Parishad) at District level and Taluk Panchayat (Panchayat Samiti) functions as an Intermediate body between the two.

3.       To maintain and streamline the organization and functions of the three tiers of panchayat raj.

4.       Panchayat at intermediate level may not be constituted in a State having a population not exceeding 20 lakhs.

5.       All seats in panchayat shall be filled by persons chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the area.

6.       Provision for direct elections for members of Panchayat, panchayat samities and Zilla Parishads and their heads. However, chairpersons of Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads were to be elected indirectly.

7.       Reservation of seats in Panchayati Raj for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. One third seats were reserved for women.

8.       One third offices of Sarpanch of panchayat and heads of Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads of a state also reserved for women.

9.       Panchayati Raj – fixed tenure of 5 years. In case of dissolution, the new institution will enjoy the remaining tenure of the previous institution.

10.   Responsibility for conducting elections of Panchayati Raj of a state lies with the State Election Commission.

11.   Panchayats were given more functions and in order to perform these functions additional finances and revenue sources were provided.

Functions allotted to Panchayats are as follows:

1.       Agriculture, including agricultural extension

2.       Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and soil conservation

3.       Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development

4.       Animal husbandry, dairy and poultry

5.       Fisheries

6.       Social forestry and farm forestry

7.       Minor forest produce

8.       Small scale industries, including food processing industries

9.       Khadi, village and cottage industries

10.   Rural housing

11.   Drinking water

12.   Fuel and fodder

13.   Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways and other means of communication

14.   Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity

15.   Non conventional energy sources

16.   Poverty alleviation program

17.   Education, including primary and secondary schools

18.   Technical training and vocational education

19.   Adult and non formal education

20.   Libraries

21.   Cultural activities

22.   Markets and fairs

23.   Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centers and dispensaries

24.   Family welfare

25.   Women and child development

26.   Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded

27.   Welfare of the weaker sections and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

28.   Public distribution system

29.   Maintenance of community assets.

Provisions for Municipalities in India under the Constitution (Seventy Forth Amendment) Act, 1992

1.       Establishment of a tri-vertical system of Municipalities: Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area, Municipal Council for a smaller urban area and a Nagar Panchayat for an area in transition from a rural to urban area

2.       To maintain and streamline the organization and functions of the three types of municipalities

3.       All the seats in a Municipality shall be filled by persons chosen by direct elections from the territorial constituencies in the Municipal are. For this purpose, the Municipal area is divided into territorial constituencies known as wards.

4.       The legislature of a state may, by law, provide for the representation in a municipality of: persons having special knowledge or experience in Municipal Administration, the members of the House of People and member of the Legislative Assembly, the members of the Council of States and members of Legislative Council of the state.

5.       Constitution of Ward Committees, consisting of one or more wards within the territorial area of a Municipality having a population of three lakhs or more

6.       Reservations of seats in Municipalities for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. One third seats reserved for women

7.       Municipalities enjoy a fixed tenure of five years and in case of dissolution, the new institution will enjoy the remaining tenure of the previous institutions.

8.       Responsibility for conducting elections of the Municipal bodies of a state lies with the State Election Commission.

9.       Municipalities were given more functions and to enable them to perform these duties additional finance and revenue sources were provided.

Functions allotted to Municipalities are as follows:

1.       Urban planning including town planning

2.       Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings

3.       Planning for economic and social development

4.       Roads and bridges

5.       Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposed

6.       Public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management

7.       Fire services

8.       Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects

9.       Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including handicapped and mentally retarded.

10.   Slum improvement and upgradation

11.   Urban poverty alleviation

12.   Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds

13.   Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects.

14.   Burial and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoriums.

15.   Cattle pounds, prevention of cruelty to animals

16.   Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths

17.   Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public conveniences.

18.   Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries.

Society, State-Society Relations

The word ‘society’ comes from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a companion, organization or association. Society refers to a union where people live in a community or society and does not exist in loneliness. Society is used in the sense of a cluster too – for e.g. Rural society or urban society.

In order for society to exist, there has to be a population. Without people society cannot be shaped as society is based on a system of relationships. Society is intangible (cannot be touched) in nature.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, ‘Society is formed by a large group of people who live together in an organized way, making decisions about how to do things, and sharing the work that needs to be done. All the people in a country, or in several similar countries, can be referred to a society’.

Characteristics of Society

Society is dynamic – Old customs, traditions, values and institutions get transformed and new customs and values take their place.

Likeness – Similarities are common. If there is not mutual recognition of belonging together, there can be no society.

Cooperation and conflict – Cooperation is essential for the formation and smooth functioning of society. Without cooperation there will be chaos and thus no society. Conflict works as a cementing factor to reinforce social relations and is necessary in a society.

Wide-ranging culture – culture is a way of life for members of a society and includes, values, beliefs, art, morals, etc.

Differences – while there are similarities, differences also enhance the social life of the people. E.g. division of labor

Inter-dependence – the survival and well-being of each member depends on the well-being of the other members of society. Man depends on his society for food, shelter, security and other needs.

Thus, society is a network of social relationships.

State-Society Relations

Department for International Development (London) defines state-society relations as ‘interactions between state institutions and societal groups to negotiate how public authority is exercised and how it can be influenced by people. They are focused on issues such as defining the mutual rights and obligations of state and society, negotiation how public resources should be allocated and establishing different modes of representation and accountability’.

Citizenship allows citizens benefits like the right to vote, to hold office, to participate in political processes, to access education, health and other benefits, to own businesses, land, security and freedom on movement.

Thus, state refers to the political dominion of legitimate compulsion (coercive) and society refers to the dominion of voluntary interaction.

State

A state is a political association that enjoys control over a definite geographical area. For example, Indian state – Government of India exercises control over all individuals, groups, associations within its geographical boundaries.

A state is also considered as any institution that can legitimately exercise force over people in a certain geographical area – for example, Indian Judiciary, Indian Police, Military, use force to establish law and order among citizens in any part of India.

Aristotle defines ‘state’ as ‘a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean a happy and honorable life’.

Woodrow Wilson defines ‘state’ as ‘the people organized for law within a definite territory’.

Dimensions of State

1.       State is a union of different individuals, groups , families and sections of society. State provides the legal bond that holds society together.

2.       State has a purpose. State is created for a reason: to enable individuals to have a better life. If there is no state there will be lawlessness and disorder. Therefore, state establishes law and order and secures people’s basic human rights.

3.       The state comprises of four elements:

a.       Population – State exists for the people. No population, no state.

b.       Territory – State has a fixed geographical area where people reside and government exercises control.

c.       Government – State creates and executes laws so that there is order in society.

d.       Sovereignty – Government has independence of functioning i.e. free from any external or foreign influence.

4.       State institutions should command people’s obedience. People should be loyal by obeying the laws and following government policies.

5.       State should have a degree of permanence i.e. it should have secure territorial boundaries.

6.       State should have Military capabilities – Army, Navy and Air Force to defend its people and territory in case of foreign attack.

7.       State should be organized. In India we have the Constitution, a government, judiciary, public administrative system, laws and regulations.

8.       State reconciles individualism with communitarianism – it forms a balance between individual needs and community needs. For e.g. the right to speech and expressions should not be used to insult others or hurt sentiments or provoke violence.

9.       The term state can be used to imply a political sub unit – 29 states in India – Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.

10.   State is different from country and nation. According to Political Science, ‘country’ is referred to a geographical area, and ‘nation’ is a community of people who share a sense of belonging to each other (oneness, unity).

Hall Ticket - Do's and Dont's (University of Mumbai)

The University of Mumbai provides hall tickets to all eligible candidates via its website.

There are two options:

1. You take a print out of your Hall Ticket

2. Your College takes a print out of your Hall Ticket and Distributes the same duly signed.

Note: 

DO's

Please see that the print out is a clear one.

Affix a recent passport sized photograph

The Hall Ticket must be signed / stamped with the signature of the Head of the Institution / Principal.

You will also need to sign the Hall Ticket

Take a photocopy (xerox copy) of the Hall Ticket and keep it safely. (This is especially important for those who tend to lose stuff easily)

Some Hall tickets have provision for signature of the examination supervisor at the center of the exam and the signature has to be taken on the day of the exam (during the exam). This is very important as it is proof of your attendance.

DONT's

Do not write anything unnecessary on your hall ticket

Hall tickets are your ticket to the exam... Do not fold it such that the printing gets distorted.

Hall tickets are a MUST for you to answer the exam... Do not leave for an exam without checking to see whether you have carried your hall ticket with you

Wish each one of you All the Best with the exams!!!

For Exam Tips click here

Arab Spring

In December 2010, Mohamed Bouazizi, a Tunisian Street Food Vendor, set himself on fire. He did this to protest harassment by municipal authorities. This single act became the well known trigger for the protests which led to the overthrowing / ousting of the Tunisian President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali.

Tunisia was simply the opening act of the Arab Spring, a long running drama that changed the History of the Middle East and North Africa in 2011 and 2012.

The reasons for the unrest in this region (as pointed out by analysts) are:

- corrupt dictatorships
- the rising expectations and frustrations of the large populations of unemployed and underemployed youth
- the catalytic role of social media like twitter and facebook.

The root cause however was the sharply rising food prices. The rising commodity prices provided the reason for the Uprising or the Arab Spring.

The rise in local food prices led to bread riots across Bahrain, Jordan, Yemen, Egypt and Morocco.

A month before the fall of the Egyptian and Tunisian regimes, the United Nations reported record high prices for meat, dairy, sugar and cereal, in 2011.

To read more about Role of Social Media in Uprisings click here

PUBLIC RELATIONS

The British Institute of Public Relations defines PR as 'The deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between an organisation and its public'.

Public relations is an ongoing inclusive activity and required planning. A cheerful greeting by a receptionist, an efficient clerk, a polite peon, a well drafted letter, social undertakings, all contribute toward better Public Relations. Thus every person in an organisation directly or indirectly is a PR person. However, due to increasing competition, most large organisations have a dedicated PR Department or Officer or they outsource their PR needs to a PR agency or company.

FUNCTIONS OF THE PR DEPARTMENT

1. PRESS RELATIONS - The PR department disseminates information to the press about the various events, activities, social undertakings etc. This enables increase in publicity.

2. PRODUCT PUBLICITY - Information about the product is presented to the media in the 'Paid sapce'. This is read or heard by a company's customers and prospective customers. It can also publicise the product through sponsorships

3. CORPORATE COMMUNICATION - PR departments promote the understanding of the company and its prodcts and services through internal and external communication.

4. LOBBYING - It means dealing with legislators and governmental officials to promote regulations to the advantage of the company.

5. COUNSELING - PR departments advise the top management on matters related to PR. This also includes advising the company in the event of product mishap. e.g. Maggi

6. IN-HOUSE JOURNALS / NEWSLETTERS / BROUCHERS / ANNUAL REPORTS - Many institutions distribute these to stakeholders as these enable spread information about the company and its products.

7. SPECIAL EVENTS - PR departments also help organisations attract media attention by arranging events, sponsoring events, funding NGOs etc.

8. STAFF WELFARE - Activities for members of the staff are also organised in order to increase their morale. e,g. Achievement recognition, best employee awards, etc

REPORT WRITING

 According to the Oxford English Dictionary: A report is a statement of the results of an investigation or of any matter on which definite information is required.

A report is a well-organized representation of facts or an objective statement of an event that has taken place or exists. It must contain relevant facts and figures. The drafting of a report requires collection of data, analysis and arranging the facts in a logical manner. This is necessary to facilitate decision-making, solving problems, sharing information, investigating incidents, etc. Reports are important means of upward as well as horizontal communication. Reports may be short or long, oral or written, formal or informal.

Formal report writing in professional, technical and business contexts have evolved certain conventions regarding format, style, referencing and other characteristics. These vary in detail between organizations.

All types of reports must be:

-         Reader oriented

-         Precise and concise

-         Accurate

-         Relevant

-         Objective and unbiased

TYPES OF REPORTS

1.    Informational Reports: Collect and present data for the reader. E.g. sales report, quarterly report, accident report etc.

2.    Analytical Reports: Study and interpret data but do not offer suggestions or recommendations. E.g. annual reports, audit reports

3.    Recommendation Reports: recommend actions or suggest solutions. E.g. Feasibility reports, problem solving reports etc

Reports may be written in the schematic or letter format. The longer formal reports follow the schematic format whereas the shorter informal report uses the letter format.

The schematic format is structured as:

1.    Introduction

-         Covering letter

-         Title Page

-         Table of contents

-         List of illustrations

-         Abstract or summary

2.    Body of the Report

-         Terms of reference and authorization (gives the background, scope and objective as well as name of the authorized person)

-         Procedure (Methods adopted for collecting data / information e.g questionnaire, interview or observation)

-         Findings (the outcome of the data collected)

-         Conclusions (deduction based on findings)

-         Recommendations (suggestions or solutions)

3.    References

-         Bibliography

-         Glossary

-         Appendices

-         Index

SAMPLE REPORT

                                                                               Senders Address

                                                                               _________________

                                                                               _________________

                                                                               Date

Receiver’s address

________________

________________

Dear Sir,

Subj: Report on_________________________

Body _______....

Conc _______...

                                                                                      Yours faithfully

                                                                                                Sd/-

                                                                                       Senders name

                                                                                              (Post)