SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY | WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Discuss the various scientific methods in Psychology

Ans: Psychologists use scientific methods to describe, predict, understand and influence behavior. All scientists must believe that their subject matter is orderly lawful before they begin their research. Three general types of scientific methods used by psychologists – Descriptive method, Co-relational Method and Formal Experiments.

Descriptive method:

Survey method – It is a research method that makes use of interviews and questionnaire.

Advantages – A great deal of information is obtained in a relatively short period of time. they are widely used today because of its interest in consumer opinions

Disadvantages – time consuming. Inaccurate information due to several reasons: cannot understand the questions, faking to portray a good image, subjects are not motivated enough to give the test.

Naturalistic Observations – This is a research method based on watching and recording behavior as it occurs in natural or real-life settings. E.g., Scientists studying the behavior of apes, friendship patterns of young children, etc.

Disadvantages – It merely observes, records and describes behavior. One has to wait for the behavior to occur. Effect of observer bias.

Clinical Method – observes behavior in the clinical set up while receiving treatments from a psychologist for their psychological problems.

Co-relational method:

It studies the relationship between two variables. A variable is anything that can change and can be measured.

Relationship is of four types: positive, negative, perfect positive or negative and zero. The strength of the relationship is expressed by a number known as co-efficient of co-relation, which extends from (-1.00 to +1.00)

e.g., Studying the relationship between I.Q. and sales effectiveness (I.Q. as measured by test and sales effectiveness as measured by number of toothbrushes sold) to enable to employ salespersons who are intelligent.

e.g., Studying the relationship between behavior problems and unpopularity.

When interpreting the relationship, it is important to know that co-relation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation.

e.g., Both behavior problems and unpopularity may be the caused by another factor namely punitive or abusive parents.

Formal experiments:

An experiment is a research method that allows the researcher to manipulate the Independent Variable (I.V.) to study the effect on the dependent variable (D.V.).

The heart of an experiment is the comparison of quantitative measures of behavior under different conditions.

Definition of Independent Variable – The variable whose quantitative value can be independently controlled by the experimenter.

Definition of Dependent Variable – The variable whose quantitative value depends upon the effect of the independent variable.

Definition of the Experimental Group – The group in an experiment that receives some value of the independent variable.

Definition of the Controlled Group – The group in an experiment that receives none of the independent variable and is used for comparisons with the experimental group.

e.g., Examining whether too high levels of noise have negative effect on behavior (amount of noise – Independent variable, tendency to help – Dependent variable)

e.g., To examine why some people become depressed during winter than other seasons (Independent variable – amount of light, dependent variable – improvement in mood).

A carefully conducted experiment allows a researcher to draw conclusions about the cause-and-effect relationship more confidently.

Advantages – It is possible to test hypothesis about casual relationships. It is capable of replication.

Disadvantages – All experiments have some degree of artificiality therefore findings cannot be generalized. Experimenters can make mistakes sometimes. Since they are complicated, it is not possible to study all casual relationship about behavior in a laboratory set up, therefore this method should be supplemented by other research methods.

 

VIEW POINTS IN PSYCHOLOGY AND THEIR ORIGIN | WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY

Discuss the various viewpoints in psychology and their origin.

Ans:

Structuralist and the Nature of Conscious Experience

a.    Wundt and Titchner studied the elements of consciousness by using a method of looking inward at one’s own experience. This method is called Introspection. They try to isolate the basic elements of the mind because Wundt and Titchner were interested in the basic elements of conscious experience and how these elements are organized. Their viewpoints ware known as structuralism. E.g., the apple in the person’s mouth.

b.    Henry Alston is known for his studies of the sensation of heat and cold. Alston discovered that we feel cold when one kind of nerve ending in the skin is stimulated, but we feel intense heat when both the cold and warm receptors in the skin are stimulated at the same time.

c.    Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Psychologists felt that human consciousness could not be broken down into elements as structuralists do as they believe that the whole is different from the sum of its part e.g., (A = 11, B = 13, C = 12)

Gestalt psychologists also used the phi-phenomenon. It is the perception of the apparent movement between two stationary stimuli. When two lights are presented in rapid sequence, the viewers see one light moving from one position to another and not as two stationary lights.

 

Functions of the conscious mind

a.    William James and the Functionalists – William James felt that thinking, feeling, learning, remembering, and other processes of human consciousness exists only because they help us to survive as a species. Because we can think, we are better able to find food or avoid danger all which helps us to survive. They emphasize on the function of consciousness; the school of thought came to be known as functionalism. According to them, studying the elements of the mind does not tell us how it functions or how it helps us to adopt to the demands of life therefore the function of the mind and not its elements re the subject matter of study.

b.    Studies of Memory – Herman Ebbinghaus – He memorized lists of information and measured the memory for them after different intervals of time. He invented an entirely new set of meaningless items for his experiments called nonsense syllables. They consisted of combination of constants C-V-C e.g., KEB, MUZ, LAT. He did this to be sure that the material he studied was not affected by the previous experience with it. He sat listening to a metronome that clicked every few seconds and learnt a list of nonsense syllables. He later tested his ability to recall and found that forgetting is very rapid at first but proceeds slowly then after.

Mary Calkins also studied memory but presented her objects with a sense of numbers, each paired with a different color. Later she would show the subjects only the color to see how many numbers they could recall. This method was called the Paired Association Method.

c.    Intelligence – Alfred Binet developed a way to measure intelligence, by experimenting a large number of test items. Binet and his colleagues were able to find a set of test questions that could be answered by most children of a given age, but not by those who were younger or who had lower intelligence.

 

Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory

a.    Ivan Pavlov – Russian psychologists in the 1890s noticed that after several feedings, the dog in his experiment started salivating when he heard the sound of the bell indicating that food was being brought to him, rather than when the food was being presented. Pavlov recognized that the dog had learnt to associate the sound with the food itself. Thus, he identified a simple form of learning called Classical Conditioning. Later other psychologists such as skinner also studied over behavior, which came to be called as ‘Operant Conditioning’. It refers to learning by consequences of our act.

b.    Watson ad Margaret Washburn – Watson agreed with Pavlov that most human behavior was learned through Classical Conditioning, but he did not believe in the study of mental process and felt that psychology should study only overt behavior.

Margaret Washburn was the first woman to attain a PhD in Psychology.

c.    Contemporary Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory – According to this theory the most important aspects of our behavior are learnt from other persons of the society (family, friends, culture, etc.)

 

Nature of Unconscious Mind

a.    Sigmund Freud and Psychoanalysis – He believed that most psychological problems were due to unconscious motives and conflict, which surround these behaviors. Very often we are not aware that these exists, most of these conflicts refer to aggressive and sexual drives.

b.    Humanistic psychology and the Unconscious mind – Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers believed that human beings determine their own fetus through the conscious decision they make. The most important aspect of people is the self-concept. As a result we became anxious later this school of thought came to be known as Humanistic Psychology.

THE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ACT 2005

The Domestic Violence Act 2005 is the first law in India specifically addressing domestic violence targeting husbands, live-in partners and family members who abuse or threaten women verbally, physically, sexually, emotionally and economically (including dowry harassment).

The salient features of the Protection from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 are as follows:

It seeks to cover women who are or have been in a relationship with the abuser where both parties have lived together in a shared household or are related by consanguinity, marriage or adoption. Family members living together as a joint family are also included: sisters, widows, mothers, single women or those living with the abuser are entitled to get legal protection.

Domestic violence includes actual abuse or the threat of abuse that is physical, sexual, verbal, emotional and economic. Harassment by way of unlawful dowry demands is also covered under this definition.

One of the most important features of the act is the women’s right to secure housing. The act provides for the women’s right to reside int eh matrimonial or shared household, whether or not she has any title or rights in the household. This right is secured by a residence order, which is passed by a court. This residence order cannot be passed against anyone who is a woman.

The court has the power to pass protection orders that prevent the abuser from aiding or committing an act of domestic violence or any other specified act, entering workplace or any other place frequented by the abused, attempting to communicate with the abused, isolating any assets used by both the parties and causing violence to the abused, her relatives and others who provide her assistance.

The protection of women through the Domestic Violence Act 2005, (PWDVA) was rightly hailed as a historic moment for Indian women’s rights. The bill was notified only in October 2006. Women activists questioned the government’s sincerity in implementing the new law in letter and in spirit.

The act, the salient features of which makes domestic violence against wives, mothers, sisters, daughters and other women relatives a civil offence came under sharp criticism, mainly from men, who argued that it was open to manipulation as it provides for wide-ranging powers to women. When the bill was tabled in parliament in 2003, male members protested that it was denigrating the institution of marriage. It took a further struggle of two years before it was eventually passed.

The new law is mainly meant to provide protection to the wife / women, live-in partner from violence at the hands of the husband, male partner or his relatives.  Among its other provisions are the right to reside int eh matrimonial and shared household, appointment of protection officers (POS), service providers and counselors and setting up of shelters for battered women.

According to activists, however, the reality is that most state governments had yet to set up either counseling centers or shelters or to appoint POS often shunting off this latter task to police officers who are already overburdened and disinclined to taking on additional responsibilities. They stress that in order to set up the legal and support mechanisms provided under PWDVA, a substantial and specific budget allocation, both at the Central and State Government levels would have to be earmarked.

There is tremendous demand for redress under the new act and that 302 cases have been filed in Delhi in the first few months. The overburdened judiciary cannot meet this demand and there was a need for sufficient judges to be in place to deliver justice to women. ‘The Delhi experience has shown that the POS are unequipped to give the required support to the judge.’

The case of Nazi of Varanasi, a survivor who spoke of the mental and physical torture she suffered at the hands of her husband and inlaws when she decided to leave after seven years of marriage and take along her five year old daughter, her husband threw acid on hter face (November 3). When she was subsequently hospitalized he frequently visited her to make threats against her and her family to force her to withdraw the case she filed against him. Since then 10 different police officers have questioned her and said she was lying to them. In the meanwhile, her husband renewed his threats to kill her if she didn’t withdraw the case against him, shared the shaken young woman.

It is not easy for a woman facing violence at home to speak out for a variety of reasons, mainly because of economic dependence on her husband. Another survivor shared ‘you face a lot of humiliation as no one takes you seriously. When I fled form my husband I had to leave my two young children behind because I had no home, no job and had to take shelter with a friend’.

In order to implement the law, NGOs and activists work closely with the judges. Deepa Jain, secretary in the Department of Women and Child Development, while reiterating the government’s commitment to implement the Act agrees that women remain vulnerable to violence at home due to lack of access to services.

The government has sent the rules and provisions of this act to all state governments and has posted it on its official websites to create greater awareness about it. Further steps include translation of the Act into regional languages, user guides and an illustrative list of possible domestic violence scenarios and immediate response routes that the victim has access to.

CEDAW – CONVENTION ON THE ELIMINATION OF ALL FORMS OF DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN

International instruments UDHR and ICCPR have all recognized the basic equality of men and women. However, there was a basic need to have an instrument specifically addressing the problem of violation of women’s right. The UN adopted CEDAW in order to ensure that State parties effectively protect women’s rights.

CEDAW defines discrimination against women as any ‘distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment, or exercise of women of human rights, fundamental freedom in the political, social, cultural, civil or any other field.

To achieve the goals of CEDAW the state should:

Condemn discrimination against women.

Embody the principle of equality of men and women in the Constitution.

Ensure the practical realization of this principle through law and other appropriate measures.

Modify or abolish existing laws, regulations, customs, and practices which are discriminatory against women.

Establish competent national tribunals and other public institutions to protect women.

Women have the right to vote and participate in government and non-governmental organizations.

Women’s place in education field and employment and other general rights are spelled out.

 

The Constitution of India provides the legal framework for integration and implementation of measure promoting and protecting human rights of women. The incorporation of CEDAW principles have been evident in the judgements by the Supreme Court and these judgments are binding on all courts of India.

India has several specific legislations and policies affecting women:

The Factories Act: weights to be carried by women.

The Contract Labor Act: separate provision of utilities for women and fixed working hours.

The Maternity Benefit Act

The Equal Remuneration Act

The Domestic Violence Act

The Dowry Act

The Sexual Harassment and Sexual Harassment at Workplace Act

Personal Laws.

 

Commissions have been set up for better protection of the Rights of Women.

ACCOUNTABILITY

Accountability is an obligation to answer for the execution of one’s assigned responsibilities. In simpler terms, accountability is reporting. People account, or report to other people.

The basic ingredients of successful accountability relationships are as follows:

Set measurable goals and responsibilities.

Plan what needs to be done to achieve goals

Do the work and monitor progress.

Report on results

Evaluate results and provide feedback.

Accountability relationships exist among the Government, the Legislative Assembly and the various operating entities owned or controlled by the Government, including departments, boards, and agencies. The Government has to incorporate a healthy accountability framework.

Effective accountability means that those managing public resources depend on sound information, not speculation, when determining the effectiveness of Government’s programs. Decision makers must evaluate performance and rationalize resource allocations to programs.

Measuring and reporting on the effectiveness of public sector programs is just the beginning. A sound basis has to be established for linking costs to outcomes, permitting a more comprehensive assessment of performance and value for money. Accountability is necessary when responsibility is assigned, and authority is delegated.

The information is presented in a way that can eb understood by users and is sufficient to provide an appropriate understanding of an organization’s performance. All forms of accountability reporting should present information on outputs. Expected results need to be clearly expressed and must be measurable.

A ministry accountability report should include all provincial organizations accountable to the Minister. Each organization and fund accountable to a Minister should prepare plans (including budgets) and performance reports.

Performance reports (such as financial statements and annual reports) should compare actual to planned results.

Key accountability reports, including plans, budgets, financial statements and annual reports should be made public. The government is responsible and accountable to the electorate. To make this accountability relationship work, the electorate must rely on its elected representatives to ensure that necessary accountability information is made public.

Information tabled in the Legislative Assembly is public and therefore promotes accountability to the Legislative Assembly and to the people. An effective accountability framework for India should require the tabling of all key accountability reports.

Accountability reports which should be tabled in the Legislative Assembly include each Ministry and each operating entity. The main elements of an effective accountability framework should be legislated.

People may be reluctant to produce accountability information when expected results are not achieved. Ministries and the organizations within them, therefore, must be required to produce accountability information. To ensure lasting and timely compliance, the major elements of the framework should eb legislated. Also, the policies of a Ministry or an organization should set out the accountability framework within that organization.

 

SECESSION

Secession is the act of withdrawing from a political unity. It is felt that limited rights may be given to secession under certain circumstances, mostly relating to oppression of ethnic or racial groups and especially those who were previously conquered by other people.

Secession is justified only if secessionists can create a viable state on contiguous territory. Many feel that secession should be considered only to rectify grave injustice.

Indian Constitution does not allow Indian states to secede from the union. Secession movement in Nagaland and Sikkim have been suppressed by military and separation sentiments still run through those states.

Secession movements were also active in Mizoram, Punjab as Khalistan, Tripura and Tamilnadu. These have died down due to military action and political agreements like the Mizo Accord and the Assam Accord.

In the international arena, in Soviet Union after the free election Lithuania declared independence, others followed, and the Soviet Union collapsed.

The Soviet Union (USSR) was a constitutionally socialist state that existed from 1922-1991. Initially it was established as a union of Soviet Socialist Republic. By 1956 it had fifteen union republics. The government and the political organization of the country was defined by the Bolsheviks and later the communist party.

After 1991, Latvia and Estonia declared independence, following Lithuania which had already declared independence. Some others were loosely organized under the Commonwealth of Independent States.

In 1991, Chechnya had a strong desire to emulate the independence of its neighbors. After continuous altercations and many clashes nothing was achieved in 1944 Stalin deported the entire Chechen population to Central Asia. Overnight 500,000 were deported forcibly and even all reference to Chechnya was removed from maps, records and encyclopedias. In 2004, after Stalin’s death, 60 years later this was recognized as genocide. With the death of Stalin the deportees were repatriated and a republic was established in 1957. Chechnya’s drive for independence continued.

Boris Yeltsin, the president of Russia, never accepted Chechnya as a separate republic. He sent troops to Chechnya but had to withdraw. The resulting anarchy in Chechnya strengthened the Russian belief that region should not become independent. Oil is a significant factor in this region. A major pipe line carries oil and Russia’s interest is to ensure that their oil needs are also met by this source. As long as Chechnya is a part of Russia, Moscow will have a say in the oil flowing through it.

In 1994, tensions between the two escalated. Russia invaded Chechnya and a bloody war ensued. This ended in a humiliating disaster and Russia withdrew in 1996. The ensuing Soviet – Afghan was attracted Islamic militants as well as resistance fighters to Chechnya. Russian president Putin waged a full-fledged war with Chechnya and indulged in massive bombing raids. One third of the population fled from Chechnya.

There was international uproar. Human rights raised concern at the rampage. Russian troops were accused of looting, burning houses and buildings and even executing those who opposed. European Union threatened to isolate Moscow if this continued. In 2000, Chechnya offered ceasefire, but the Russian demands were stern. UN special reporters were appointed to check human rights and humanitarian violations, but Russia refused and covered up all evidence.

In 2003 Chechnya referendum stipulated the republic as a part of Russia. Political debate has been severely constricted. There have been many terrorist attacks that shook Russia since then. The worst episode is the hostage taking of hundreds of children where hundreds of women and children died.

Human Rights activists were killed or imprisoned, and many cases were filed against them. As late as February 2010 the Chechnya President dropped various libel suit against activists and journalists who accused him of murder. However, the situation continued.

MEASURES OF DISPERSION | STANDARD DEVIATION

STANDARD DEVIATION

The concept of Standard Deviation was introduced in 1893 by Karl Pearson. It is the most commonly used measure of dispersion.

A standard deviation is a statistic that measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean and is calculated as the square root of the variance. If the data points are further from the mean, there is a higher deviation within the data set; thus, the more spread out the data, the higher the standard deviation.

Standard deviation can be defined as the positive square root of the arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviation of the given observation from their arithmetic mean, i.e., it is ‘root mean square deviation from mean’.

 

For example

Calculate standard deviation from the following observation

10, 9, 13, 20, 8, 10, 20, 8, 10, 12

 

Solution:

Values x	x²
10	100
9
13
20
8
10
20
8
10
12
Total x = 120	Total x² = 1622

 

n = 10

sum x² = 1622

sum x = 120

σ = square root of Sum x²/ n – (sum x/n) ²

= square root of 1622/10 – (120/10) ²

= square root of 162.2 – 144

= square root of 18.2

= 4.27