CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSION

Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is an apex Indian governmental body created in 1964 to address governmental corruption. It has the status of an autonomous body, free of control from any executive authority. It monitors all vigilance activity under the Central Government of India and advises various authorities in Central Government organizations in planning, executing, reviewing, and reforming their vigilance work.

It was set up by the Government of India in February 1964 on the recommendations of the Committee on Prevention of Corruption, headed by Shri K. Santhanam, to advise and guide Central Government agencies in the field of vigilance. Nittoor Srinivasa Rau, was selected as the first Chief Vigilance Commissioner of India.

The Annual Report of the CVC gives the details of the work done by it and brings out the system failures that lead to corruption in various Departments / Organizations, system improvements, various preventive measures and cases in which the Commission's advises were ignored etc.

The CVC is not an investigating agency - it gets the investigation done through the CBI or through the Departmental Chief Vigilance Officers

Powers and Functions of CVC

- to exercise superintendence over the functioning of the Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) with respect to investigation under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988; or offence under CRPC for certain categories of public servants and to give directions to the DSPE for purpose of discharging this responsibility.

- To review the progress of investigations conducted by the DSPE into offences alleged to have been committed under the PC Act.

- To undertake an inquiry or cause an inquiry or investigation to be made into any transaction in which a public servant working in any organization, to which the executive control of the Government of India extends, is suspected or alleged to have acted for an improper purpose or in a corrupt manner.

- To tender independent and impartial advice to the disciplinary and other authorities in disciplinary cases, involving vigilance angle at different stages i.e. investigation, inquiry, appeal, review etc.

- To exercise a general check and supervision over vigilance and anti-corruption work in Ministries or Departments of the Govt. of India and other organizations to which the executive power of the Union extends

- To chair the Committee for selection of Director (CBI), Director (Enforcement Directorate) and officers of the level of SP and above in DSPE.

- To undertake or cause an inquiry into complaints received under the Public Interest Disclosure and Protection of Informer and recommend appropriate action.

MAHAJANAPADAS

Mahajanapadas literally means "Great kingdoms".

The word has taken from Sanskrit Maha = great, Janapada = foothold of tribe = country.

By 500 BC, sixteen monarchies and 'republics' known as the Mahajanapadas stretched across the Indo-Gangetic plains from modern-day Afghanistan to Bangladesh.

The Buddhist and other texts only incidentally refer to sixteen great nations (Solasa Mahajanapadas) which were in existence before the time of Buddha.

The Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya, at several places, gives a list of sixteen nations:

1. Kasi

2. Kosala

3. Anga

4. Magadha

5. Vajji (or Vriji)

6. Malla

7. Chedi

8. Vatsa (or Vamsa)

9. Kuru

10. Panchala

11. Machcha (or Matsya)

12. Surasena

13. Assaka

14. Avanti

15. Gandhara

16. Kamboja

RISE OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

RISE OF JAINISM AND BUDDHISM

CAUSES

1. COMPLEXITIES OF THE VEDIC RELIGION: During the early Vedic age the religion of the people was quite simple and pure. However, by the 6^th century BC the Vedic religion and philosophy lost their original purity. Religion became a complex mixture of sacrifices, rituals and mantras. The rituals and ceremonies were made so elaborate and expensive that they were no longer within the reach of the average people. The Vedic hymns were replaced by formulae, which were believed to posses divine powers. These practices gradually led to the creeping in of superstitious beliefs within the otherwise simple and meaningful religion.
2. PREDOMINANCE OF PRIESTLY CLASS: As the Vedic religion assumed the nature of complexity, a professional class of priests emerged to perform the lengthy and complicated rituals associated with various sacrifices. This class of priests who were drawn from the Brahmin caste claimed a prominent position in the society. In order to maintain their hold over the society they further complicated the religion by introducing unnecessary rituals and practices by which the sacrifices became lengthy and costlier. This class of priests dominated every aspect of the Aryan life right from birth to even after death. Their greed for dakshina and arrogance of their position in society and religion gradually led the people to lose faith both in the Brahmanic religion and the priestly class.
3. SACRIFICES: Sacrifices became an integral part of the religious life of the Vedic people. Initially the Vedic Aryans used grains, vegetables, fruits and milk and milk products as sacrificial offerings. However, gradually animal and even human sacrifices came to be prescribed. The common people found it difficult to provide animals to these sacrifices. The public sacrifices conducted by the rulers such as asvamedha drained the treasury of the state.  Besides, the merciless killing of the animals in the name of sacrifice crated revulsion among the more sensitive people. Thus many of these people were against the system that promoted cruelty against animals and exploited common folk.
4. DIFFICULT LANGUAGE: Sanskrit the language of sacrifices and rituals as well as of sacred literature of the Vedic age was beyond the comprehension of the common people. The Brahmins who had a monopoly on the study of the language were essential for any kind of sacrifice either domestic or public. As the common people could not understand the language, their participation in various religious rituals was only physical and not spiritual. Thus, the people developed an indifferent attitude towards the religious ceremonies. Their involvement in the sacrifices was limited to providing animals and dakshina to the priests and making arrangements for the sacrifices. This system of religion could not satisfy the spiritual yearnings of the common people. Hence they became receptive when new teachings and philosophy was presented before them in their own language.
5. ALTERNATIVE MEANS OF SALVATION: While the priestly classes were emphasizing the Karma Marg by performing sacrifices and samskaras in order to achieve the final deliverance, those who were disgusted with the existing complexities of religious practices were preaching an alternative path to achieve the same end. These included the doctrine of Tapas or self-mortification as a means of realizing god. These alternative means of self-realization of the Supreme Spirit and the Gyana Marg as a means of realizing god. These alternative means of salvation played a great role in the emergence of Jainism and Buddhism.
6. CASTE SYSTEM: By the 6th century BC the caste system had become quite rigid. The post Vedic society was clearly divided into 4 main castes – Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The caste divided society created tensions. There was a tussle between the Kshatriyas and the Brahmans. The Kshatriyas reacted against the privileged position of the Brahmins in society. Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha, who belonged to the Kshatriya caste, challenged the authority of the priestly class. Hence, Jainism and Buddhism can be considered as the Kshatriya reaction to Brahmin dominated Vedic religion.
7. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY: The migration of the Aryans in the Gangetic valley led to the development of agricultural economy on a large scale. The use of iron tools made possible clearance of forests and large settlements. As iron ploughshare was used to till the land bullocks were required to pull the ploughs and animal husbandry was essential for the progress of agrarian economy. However the practice of animal sacrifice in which cattle were killed indiscriminately indirectly hampered the progress of agriculture.
8. RISE OF CITIES AND DEVELOPMENT OF TRADE: The period witnessed the rise of a large number of cities in northeastern India. The chief cities were Kausambi, Kusinagar, Benaras. These cities had many artisans and traders. They began to use punch marked coins for the first time. The use of coins facilitated trade and commerce. This added to the importance of the Vaishyas. Under these circumstances, the Vaishyas looked for some religion which would improve their status. Thus, when Mahavira and Buddha preached their new religions, they received full support from this caste.

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIA

Ancient India gave the world a rich culture and civilization at a time when many other regions still remained uncivilized. But hardly any record of ancient history was maintained. The establishment of British rule in India gave rise to systematic study of Indian history.

In 1784 Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society of India for the study of History through study of antiquities found in India and other countries. Scholars like James Princep, Francis Buchanan, Alexander Cunningham and Sir John Marshall collected old manuscripts and other antiquities, on the basis of which, they tried to trace ancient history.

Classification of sources

The sources of ancient Indian History can be broadly classified as Literary and Archaeological.

1. Literary Sources – Contain detailed information about the political, social, economic and religious conditions of those times. The literary sources can be further classified into Sacred and Secular Literature.

a. Sacred Literature – These are religious texts. They are classified as: Brahmanical, Jain and Buddhist.

-          Brahmanical literature is written in Sanskrit language and includes Vedic literature, the Epics, Puranas, Smritis and Dharmasutras.

-          The Vedic literature is the oldest in India.  There are four main Vedas. The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘vid’ meaning ‘to know’. The four main Vedas are:

-          A. Rig Veda – A collection of hymns revealed by god through the Rishis

-          B. Sama Veda – Derived from Rig Veda – it consists of verses praising various gods and goddesses. Each verse is assigned with a melody. Sama Veda is a text of rituals

-          C. Yajur Veda is a ‘Book of Sacrificial Prayers’, it provides guidance towards more complex rituals.

-          D. Atharva Veda is known as the Book of Magic Formulae. It consists of spells and incantations against evil spirits and illnesses.

Brahmanas are commentaries on the Vedic texts

Arayankas are discourse on different spiritual and philosophical problems from the Vedic texts.

Upanishads are independent treatises on spiritual and philosophical problems. They mark the beginning of Indian Philosophy.

The Vedas, Brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads are part of the Shruti literature. Shruti means ‘revelation’ – inspired by god

The Smriti literature (Dharmashastras) belong to the post Vedic period. They show the change from simplicity of the early Vedic period to a rigid society. In order to regulate the social life of the people 5 kinds of sutras were created

Shrouta Sutra – which explained sacrificial rituals

Griha Sutra – which describes domestic rites and ceremonies

Kalpa Sutra – Manuals

Sulva Sutra and Dharma sutras specifying laws and social customs.

EPICS – RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA are the two Sanskrit epics. They give us information about the life in ancient India

Ramayan written by Valmiki is the biography of Lord Rama – the ideal son, husband, brother and king.

Mahabharata composed by Vyasa give a glimpse of primitive Indian society.

The Bhagvad Gita, the philosophy of Hindus to date, is a part of Mahabharata.

The Ramayana depicts the southwards expansion of the Aryans where as the Mahabharata shows the synthesis of the Aryan and non Aryan cultures.

Puranas – deal with the process of evolution of the universe. There are 18 puranas. They form the main source of study for the pre-Buddhist era.

JAIN LITERATURE

-          It was written in Prakrit language. ( a form of Sanskrit)

-          It contains 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Chedda Sutras, 4 Mula Sutras and 4 Miscellaneous Tests.

-          It contains a lot of information about the social economic, political and religious conditions of the period

BUDDHIST LITERATURE

-          It was written in Pali (a form of Prakrit) prevalent in Magadha

-          It consists of 3 Pitakas (baskets). They are – Vinaya Pitaka – which consists of the monastic code of conduct, Sutta Pitaka – reveals ethical principles of Buddhism and Abhidamma Pitaka – which deals with Buddhist Philosophy.

-          There are also 5 Buddhist nikayas.

-          The non-canonical literature includes Milinda Panha, Petakopadesah and Mahavamsa.

2. Secular Literature – Can be classified as Indian and Foreign accounts.

INDIAN

Ancient Indian literature is present in various forms such as drama, biographies, treatises, grammar, poems etc which give valuable information on the life of the people.

Information on the social life of the people

-          Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

-          Patanjali’s Mahabhashya

-          Katyayana’s Vartika

Indian Polity

-          Kautilya’s Arthasastra

Sanskrit drama

-          Kalidasa’s Shakuntala and Malvikagnimitram

-          Bhasa’s Swapnavasavadatta

-          Vishakadutta’s Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragupta

Biographies and chronicles give valuable information

-          Banabhatta’s Harshacharita

-          Chandrabardai’s Prithviraja Raso

-          Kalhana’s Rajatarangini – gives history of Kashmir from 8^th to 12^th century

FOREIGN ACCOUNTS

Many foreign travelers have left accounts of India. Prominent among them are the works of the Chinese Greek and Arab travelers.

Greek

-          Herodotus

-          Curtius

-          Pliny

-          Ptolemy

-          Megasthenes – ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya (Indica)

Chinese (pilgrims)

-          Fa Hein

-          Hiuen Tsang

-          I-tsing

Arabs

-          Alberuni’s Tarikh I Hind

-          Al Masudi

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

These include inscriptions (Epigraphy), coins (Numismatics), structural remains, pottery, tools, sculptures, paintings and other antiquities found in excavations. These sources provide us very authentic information about the political, social, economic, religious and cultural life of the people.