PRESS DURING EMERGENCY IN INDIA

The Emergency of 1975–1977 was one of the most difficult periods for the Indian press. 

The Emergency was declared by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 25 June 1975 under Article 352 of the Constitution. During this period, the government imposed strict controls on the media, particularly on newspapers.

1. Censorship of the Press

The government introduced pre-censorship of newspapers. News reports, editorials and articles had to be submitted to government authorities before publication. Material considered critical of the government could be stopped from being printed.

2. Restrictions on Freedom of Expression

The freedom of speech and expression, including freedom of the press, was severely restricted. Newspapers found it difficult to openly criticise government policies or report opposition activities.

3. Arrests of Journalists

Several journalists, editors and political activists were arrested under emergency laws. This created an atmosphere of fear among media professionals.

4. Control over News

The government attempted to control the flow of information. Newspapers were expected to publish official statements and government-approved information. Critical reporting became difficult.

5. Pressure on Newspapers

Newspapers that resisted government censorship faced pressure through actions such as withdrawal of government advertisements, threats and restrictions. This affected the financial independence of several publications.

6. Electricity Cut to Newspaper Offices

In the early hours after the Emergency was declared, electricity supplies to some major newspaper offices in Delhi were reportedly cut. This prevented newspapers from immediately printing news about the political developments.

7. Newspapers That Resisted

Despite censorship, some newspapers and journalists tried to maintain independent journalism. The Indian Express and The Statesman are often remembered for their resistance to excessive government control.

A famous example is the use of blank spaces in newspapers when articles were censored. The empty space itself became a form of protest and communicated to readers that something had been prevented from being published.

8. Impact on Journalism

The Emergency had a major impact on Indian journalism:

• Journalists became more cautious because of fear of government action.
• Investigative and critical journalism was restricted.
• Self-censorship increased.
• The independence of the press came under serious pressure.
• The experience strengthened later debates about press freedom and democratic accountability.

9. End of the Emergency

The Emergency ended on 21 March 1977 after elections were announced and the Congress government was defeated. The period remains an important chapter in the history of Indian democracy and journalism.

Conclusion

The Emergency demonstrated how vulnerable the press can become when freedom of expression is restricted. At the same time, the resistance shown by some newspapers and journalists highlighted the importance of an independent press in a democracy.

In simple words: The Emergency period showed that the press is not only responsible for reporting news but also plays an important role in questioning authority, protecting public interest and safeguarding democracy.

RISE OF VERNACULAR PRESS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MARATHI PRESS

The vernacular press refers to newspapers and journals published in Indian regional languages rather than in English. The growth of the vernacular press during the 19th century played an important role in the development of Indian society, education, political awareness and nationalism.

The British initially encouraged the development of the printing press, but as regional-language newspapers began to criticise colonial policies and spread political awareness, the government introduced several restrictions on them.

Rise of the Vernacular Press in India

The development of printing technology and the spread of education encouraged the growth of newspapers in Indian languages. Missionaries, social reformers, intellectuals and nationalists used newspapers to communicate with ordinary people.

Some important reasons for the rise of the vernacular press were:

1. Spread of education: Increasing literacy created a larger readership.
2. Growth of printing technology: Printing became faster and comparatively cheaper.
3. Social reform: Reformers used newspapers to discuss issues such as caste discrimination, women's education, child marriage and widow remarriage.
4. Political awareness: Newspapers informed people about British policies, taxation and administrative decisions.
5. Growth of nationalism: The press became an important means of developing a sense of unity and national consciousness.
6. Regional languages: Newspapers in local languages could reach people who could not read English.

Rise of the Marathi Press

The Marathi press occupies an important place in the history of Indian journalism. Maharashtra had a strong tradition of education, literature, social reform and political activism, which helped Marathi newspapers develop rapidly during the 19th century.

1. Darpan – 1832

Darpan, started by Balshastri Jambhekar in 1832, is considered the first Marathi newspaper. It was bilingual, being published in Marathi and English.

Jambhekar used the newspaper to promote education, scientific thinking and social reform. He is therefore often regarded as the father of Marathi journalism.

2. Digdarshan – 1832

Balshastri Jambhekar also started Digdarshan, a Marathi periodical devoted to subjects such as science, history and geography. It helped introduce modern knowledge to Marathi-speaking readers.

3. Prabhakar – 1841

Prabhakar, associated with Bhagwanrao Palshikar and later with the social reformer Bhau Mahajan, became an important Marathi publication. It discussed social and political issues and contributed to public debate.

4. Indu Prakash – 1862

Indu Prakash was an important bilingual publication associated with the reformist movement in Maharashtra. It supported social reform and discussed issues such as education, women's rights and changes in Hindu society.

5. Kesari – 1881

One of the most influential Marathi newspapers was Kesari, founded in 1881 by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, along with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar and Vishnushastri Chiplunkar.

Kesari became an important platform for political criticism and nationalist ideas. Tilak used it to criticise British policies and encourage political participation among Indians.

6. Mahratta – 1881

Along with Kesari, Tilak started The Mahratta, an English-language newspaper. While Kesari reached Marathi-speaking readers, The Mahratta addressed an English-educated readership.

Role of the Marathi Press

The Marathi press played several important roles:

• Created political awareness: It explained British policies and their impact on Indians.
• Encouraged nationalism: Newspapers helped develop anti-colonial and national consciousness.
• Promoted social reform: Issues such as caste, education, women's rights and social customs were discussed.
• Provided a platform for debate: Newspapers encouraged readers to discuss important social and political questions.
• Connected people: They helped spread ideas across different parts of Maharashtra.
• Supported the freedom movement: Marathi newspapers increasingly became instruments of nationalist mobilisation.

British Restrictions on the Vernacular Press

The growing influence of Indian-language newspapers worried the British government. The most important restriction was the Vernacular Press Act of 1878, introduced during the administration of Lord Lytton.

The Act gave the government powers to control Indian-language newspapers and take action against publications considered critical of the colonial government. It became a symbol of British attempts to suppress the Indian press.

The Act was eventually repealed in 1882, but restrictions and prosecutions continued in different forms.

Conclusion

The rise of the vernacular press marked an important stage in the development of modern India. It brought news, education, social reform and political ideas to people in their own languages. The Marathi press, beginning with Balshastri Jambhekar's Darpan and later strengthened by publications such as Kesari, played a major role in creating an informed public and spreading nationalist consciousness.

Thus, the vernacular press was not merely a means of reporting news; it became an important instrument of social change, public opinion and the Indian freedom movement.

CONTRIBUTION OF WOMEN SCHOLARS IN EARLY INDIA - IKS

Women in early India made important contributions to philosophy, literature, education, spirituality, medicine, mathematics, and intellectual traditions. Although historical sources often give greater prominence to men, references in ancient texts show that women could participate in intellectual debates, compose hymns, teach students, and contribute to knowledge traditions.

It is important to understand that women's educational opportunities varied considerably according to period, region, social group, and historical circumstances. Therefore, the contribution of women scholars should be studied alongside the changing social conditions of early India.

1. Women Scholars in the Vedic Period

The Vedic period provides some of the earliest references to women participating in intellectual and religious life. Women who composed or were associated with Vedic hymns are often referred to as ṛṣikās (female sages).

Gargi Vachaknavi

Gargi Vachaknavi is one of the best-known women philosophers of early India.

She appears in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, where she participates in a philosophical debate at the court of King Janaka. She questions the philosopher Yajnavalkya about the fundamental nature of reality.

Her questions move from the physical universe toward deeper philosophical questions concerning what ultimately supports existence.

Contribution:

·       Demonstrated women's participation in philosophical debate.

·       Raised questions about the nature and foundation of the universe.

·       Represented the intellectual tradition of questioning and reasoning in the Upanishadic period.

·       Became an important example of women's participation in ancient Indian philosophy.

Maitreyi

Maitreyi is another important woman associated with the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.

She is presented as a learned woman interested in questions about knowledge, immortality, and the nature of the self. In a dialogue with Yajnavalkya, she asks whether wealth can lead to immortality.

Her famous philosophical question essentially asks: Can material wealth provide what is necessary for attaining immortality?

The discussion develops into an exploration of Atman (self), knowledge and immortality.

Contribution:

·       Participated in philosophical inquiry.

·       Emphasised knowledge over material possessions.

·       Contributed to discussions concerning the nature of the self and immortality.

·       Demonstrates that philosophical education was not entirely restricted to men.

 

2. Women Rishikas and Vedic Hymns

Several women are traditionally associated with hymns of the Rig Veda. They are sometimes described as female seers or rishikas.

Lopamudra

Lopamudra is traditionally associated with a hymn in the Rig Veda and with the sage Agastya.

The hymn associated with Lopamudra contains themes concerning marriage, human relationships, desire and household life.

Her significance lies in the fact that a woman's perspective is represented within the Vedic literary tradition.

Ghosha

Ghosha is traditionally associated with two hymns of the Rig Veda addressed to the Ashvins.

Her hymns are connected with themes such as health, companionship, marriage and personal aspirations.

Apala

Apala is associated with a Rigvedic hymn addressed to Indra. The hymn has been interpreted in connection with healing and personal transformation.

Vishvavara

Vishvavara is traditionally associated with a hymn dedicated to Agni.

These women are important because they demonstrate that women could be represented as composers and transmitters of sacred knowledge in the Vedic tradition.

 

3. Women and Upanishadic Philosophy

The Upanishads encouraged philosophical questioning about fundamental issues such as:

·       What is the self?

·       What is reality?

·       What is knowledge?

·       What is the relationship between the individual and the universe?

·       What is immortality?

Gargi and Maitreyi are particularly significant because they demonstrate that women could participate in this intellectual environment.

Their importance is not simply that they were women mentioned in ancient texts. Their dialogues show women asking difficult philosophical questions and engaging in intellectual reasoning.

 

4. Women Scholars in Buddhist Tradition

The emergence of Buddhism created another important space for women's intellectual and spiritual participation.

The Buddha established an order of Buddhist nuns, known as the Bhikkhuni Sangha. Women could pursue religious learning and spiritual development within this tradition.

Mahapajapati Gotami

Mahapajapati Gotami was the Buddha's foster mother and is traditionally regarded as the first woman to be ordained into the Buddhist monastic order.

Her importance includes:

·       Establishing the Bhikkhuni tradition.

·       Creating opportunities for women to pursue Buddhist learning.

·       Becoming an important figure in the history of women's religious education.

Therigatha

One of the most important sources for women's voices in early Buddhism is the Therigatha, a collection of poems attributed to early Buddhist nuns.

The poems express women's experiences, struggles, intellectual reflections and spiritual achievements.

Women such as Ambapali, Khema and Uppalavanna are associated with the early Buddhist tradition.

These writings are significant because they provide some of the earliest surviving literary expressions of women's personal experiences and spiritual aspirations in India.

 

5. Women and Jain Intellectual Tradition

The Jain tradition also provided opportunities for women to participate in religious and intellectual life.

Women could become nuns and teachers, and Jain literature contains references to learned women.

Chandana / Chandanbala

Chandanbala is traditionally regarded as an important early Jain woman associated with Mahavira's community.

The Jain monastic tradition enabled women to participate in:

·       Religious education

·       Ethical teaching

·       Spiritual discipline

·       Transmission of Jain ideas

Women therefore contributed to the preservation and dissemination of Jain knowledge.

 

6. Women in Literature and Sangam Tradition

The Sangam literary tradition of ancient Tamilakam provides important evidence of women's participation in literary culture.

Avvaiyar

Avvaiyar is one of the most famous women poets associated with Tamil literary tradition.

The name Avvaiyar is associated with more than one historical literary figure, so the works attributed to "Avvaiyar" should not automatically be treated as belonging to a single individual.

Her poetry is associated with themes such as:

·       Ethics

·       Social relationships

·       Human values

·       Love

·       Wisdom

·       Everyday life

Avvaiyar's literary legacy became especially influential in Tamil culture and education.

 

7. Women and Education

Ancient Indian sources contain references to women receiving education, although access was not universal.

Some women were described as Brahmavadinis—women devoted to the pursuit of knowledge and philosophical learning.

The presence of women such as Gargi and Maitreyi indicates that at least some women had access to advanced intellectual education.

However, it is important not to conclude that all women in ancient India enjoyed equal educational opportunities. Education was influenced by social status, caste, family background, region and period.

Thus, the historical evidence presents a mixed picture: women could become scholars, but educational access was uneven.

 

8. Women and Scientific Knowledge

The evidence for individual women scientists in the earliest periods of Indian history is much less extensive than the evidence for male scholars.

However, women participated in the transmission of practical and traditional knowledge, particularly in areas such as:

·       Medicine and healing practices

·       Childcare

·       Agriculture

·       Food preparation and preservation

·       Textile production

·       Household technologies

·       Botanical knowledge

Much of this knowledge was transmitted orally and therefore was not always recorded under individual women's names.

This is an important point when studying the history of knowledge: the absence of a woman's name from a written text does not necessarily mean that women did not contribute to knowledge.

 

9. Women as Teachers and Transmitters of Knowledge

Knowledge in early India was often transmitted through oral traditions.

Teachers, families, religious communities and institutions played an important role in preserving knowledge.

Women contributed to this process by transmitting:

·       Religious traditions

·       Songs and oral literature

·       Folklore

·       Stories

·       Ethical teachings

·       Practical knowledge

·       Cultural traditions

Thus, women's contribution was not restricted to producing written texts. They were also carriers and transmitters of cultural knowledge.

 

10. Importance of Women Scholars in Early India

The contributions of women scholars are significant for several reasons.

1. They demonstrate intellectual participation: Gargi and Maitreyi show that women could participate in serious philosophical discussions.

2. They broaden our understanding of Indian knowledge traditions: Indian intellectual history was not created exclusively by men. Women also contributed to its philosophical, religious and literary traditions.

3. They provide women's perspectives: The writings and dialogues associated with women give us perspectives on:

·       Family

·       Marriage

·       Spirituality

·       Identity

·       Society

·       Human relationships

4. They challenge stereotypes: The existence of women scholars challenges the simplistic idea that women were completely excluded from intellectual life in early India.

5. They demonstrate diversity: Women's experiences differed across periods, communities and regions. The history of women in India therefore cannot be understood through a single narrative.

 

The contribution of women scholars in early India can be seen particularly in philosophy, Vedic literature, Buddhism, Jainism, Tamil literature and the transmission of cultural knowledge. Figures such as Gargi, Maitreyi, Lopamudra, Ghosha and Avvaiyar demonstrate that women were not merely passive participants in society but could also be thinkers, poets, teachers and seekers of knowledge.

At the same time, their examples should not be used to suggest that educational opportunities were equal for all women. Access to learning was shaped by social and historical circumstances.

Therefore, the history of women scholars in early India presents a complex but important picture: despite limitations and inequalities, women made meaningful contributions to India's intellectual and cultural heritage, and their voices form an essential part of understanding the country's history of knowledge.

BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATON

Communication is the process of sharing information, ideas, feelings, opinions, or instructions from one person to another. Communication is successful only when the receiver understands the message in the way the sender intended.

Sometimes, certain factors create problems in this process. These problems are called barriers to communication.

Simple Definition - Barriers to communication are obstacles that prevent a message from being communicated, received, or understood correctly.

For example, if a teacher explains a topic but students cannot hear because of noise, communication has been affected by a physical barrier.

 

Types of Barriers to Communication

1. Physical Barriers - Physical barriers are problems caused by the surroundings or physical environment that make communication difficult.

They include:

·       Noise

·       Poor lighting

·       Large distance

·       Crowded surroundings

·       Faulty microphones or speakers

·       Poor seating arrangements

Examples

Example 1: During a college lecture, construction work is taking place outside the classroom. The noise makes it difficult for students to hear the teacher.

Example 2: At a busy railway station in Mumbai, a passenger cannot hear an important announcement because of the loud noise on the platform.

How to overcome it

Choose a quiet place, use proper sound equipment, and make sure the receiver can clearly hear and see the communicator.

 

2. Language Barriers

Language barriers occur when the sender and receiver do not understand the same language properly.

India is a multilingual country, with people speaking many regional languages. Language differences can therefore become an important communication barrier.

Language barriers can also occur when:

·       Difficult words are used

·       Technical terms are used unnecessarily

·       The speaker uses a language unfamiliar to the receiver

·       The speaker has a difficult-to-understand accent

Examples

Example 1: A shopkeeper in Mumbai mainly speaks Marathi, while a customer from Tamil Nadu speaks mainly Tamil. Both find it difficult to communicate with each other.

Example 2: A doctor explains medical instructions in English to a patient who understands only Hindi. The patient may not fully understand the instructions.

How to overcome it

Use simple language, avoid unnecessary technical terms, and use a language that the receiver understands.

 

3. Semantic Barriers

Semantics means the meaning of words.

A semantic barrier occurs when the sender and receiver understand the same word or sentence differently.

Some words are vague and can have different meanings for different people.

Examples

Example 1: A teacher tells students, “Submit your assignment soon.” Some students may think “soon” means today, while others may think it means within a week.

Example 2: An Indian manager tells an employee to “take a break.” The manager means a short break, but the employee may understand it as taking a long period away from work.

How to overcome it

Use specific and clear words.

Instead of saying: “Submit the assignment soon.”

Say: “Submit the assignment by Friday at 4 p.m.”

 

4. Psychological Barriers

Psychological barriers are related to a person's feelings, emotions, mental state, and confidence.

Emotions such as:

·       Fear

·       Anger

·       Stress

·       Anxiety

·       Nervousness

·       Lack of confidence

can affect communication.

Examples

Example 1: A student knows the answer to a question but is too nervous to speak in front of the class.

Example 2: An employee makes a mistake but is afraid of their manager. Therefore, the employee does not report the mistake.

How to overcome it

Create a friendly and supportive environment where people feel comfortable asking questions, expressing opinions, and admitting mistakes.

 

5. Cultural Barriers

Culture influences how people speak, behave, greet others, express respect, and communicate their feelings.

People from different cultural backgrounds may have different:

·       Customs

·       Values

·       Beliefs

·       Gestures

·       Communication styles

These differences can sometimes lead to misunderstanding.

Examples

Example 1: A person from one Indian community may use a particular greeting or gesture that another person does not understand or interprets differently.

Example 2: A student from an urban background and a student from a rural background may have different ways of expressing disagreement because of their different social and cultural experiences.

How to overcome it

Respect cultural differences and avoid making assumptions about how other people communicate.

 

6. Organisational Barriers

Organisational barriers occur within companies, colleges, government offices, or other institutions because of poor communication systems.

They may occur because of:

·       Too many levels of management

·       Lack of coordination

·       Unclear instructions

·       Delay in passing information

·       Poor communication channels

Examples

Example 1: A college changes the examination timetable but the information does not reach one department. Students therefore receive different information from different teachers.

Example 2: In a company, a manager gives instructions to a supervisor. As the message passes through several levels of employees, the original message gets changed.

How to overcome it

Maintain clear communication channels, reduce unnecessary levels of communication, and make sure important information reaches everyone concerned.

 

7. Technological Barriers

Today, a large amount of communication takes place through computers, smartphones, email, video calls, and social media.

Problems with technology can therefore become communication barriers.

These include:

·       Poor internet connection

·       Technical problems

·       Audio/video failure

·       Unfamiliarity with software

·       Faulty devices

Examples

Example 1: A student attending an online lecture from a small town loses the internet connection repeatedly and misses important parts of the lecture.

Example 2: During an online meeting, a participant's microphone stops working. The other participants cannot hear the person's presentation.

How to overcome it

Check technology before communication, maintain a backup method, and provide technical support when necessary.

 

8. Attitudinal Barriers

Attitudinal barriers occur when a person's negative attitude prevents effective communication.

A person may:

·       Refuse to listen

·       Think they are always right

·       Ignore other people's opinions

·       Have a negative attitude towards another person

·       Believe that only senior people have good ideas

Examples

Example 1: During a college group project, one student refuses to consider another student's idea because they believe their own idea is always better.

Example 2: An employee does not listen to suggestions from a junior colleague because they believe that only senior employees can give useful ideas.

How to overcome it

Develop an open-minded attitude, listen carefully, and respect the opinions of others.

 

9. Perceptual Barriers

Perception means the way we understand or interpret something.

Two people may receive the same message but understand it differently because of their experiences, beliefs, expectations, or assumptions.

Examples

Example 1: A teacher tells a student, “You need to improve your presentation.” The teacher intends to provide helpful feedback, but the student understands it as criticism.

Example 2: A manager sends an employee a short message: “Please see me.” The employee assumes that they have done something wrong, while the manager simply wants to discuss a new project.

How to overcome it

Avoid assumptions, explain messages clearly, and encourage the receiver to ask questions or seek clarification.