RAZIYA SULTAN 1236-1240 A.D.

 Iltutmish had originally nominated his eldest son Nasiruddin Mahmud as his successor to the throne, but he died in 1229. In order to avoid civil war amongst his children, owing to indefinite laws of succession, he nominated his eldest daughter, Raziya, as heir apparent. During the Gwalior campaign of Iltutmish (1231-32) Raziya proved her ability as a good administrator and so Iltutmish made up his mind to nominate her as successor. 

Following the death of Iltutmish, the Turkish nobles who were opposed to the nomination of Raizya ignored her claim to the throne and elected Ruknuddin as the next Sultan. The provincial governors and nobles supported Ruknuddin and his mother Shah Turkah interfered in the administration. The ‘Corps of Forty’ felt that the dynasty must be preserved and Ruknuddin deposed. The Vazir, along with the governors of Multan, Jansi and Badaun, joined forces and marched towards the capital. Ruknuddin’s forces deserted him and a bloodless revolution took place.  

During the Friday namaz, when people had gathered, Raziya appeared before them and appealed to them to exercise their right of choosing the sovereign. The assembled people were moved by Raziya’s speech, they attacked the palace, imprisoned Shah Turkah and crowned Raziya. Ruknuddin was arrested and he died in prison.  

Her difficulties: Soon after her accession, Raziya found herself confronted with many difficulties. She had the support of a few rebel military leaders and the common citizens of Delhi. The Vazir and the provincial governors were keen to replace Ruknuddin by a person of their choice, whom they could control and influence. To the orthodox, the new ruler was unacceptable, simply because she was a woman. The other sons of Iltutmish and their supporters did not accept Raziya.  

Consolidation of Power: Raziya took advantage of the mutual rivalries of the provincial governors and spread rumors that a number of rebel chiefs had joined her and had promised to bring the others to her. This caused mistrust and infighting among the rebels, so that they withdrew from the capital for their own safety. Thus, Raziya used a clever strategy and avoided war against the rebels. The provincial governors submitted to her. 

Raziya was an extraordinary woman of rare genius. Once on the throne, she became unorthodox. She cast off her veil and female garments, dressed like a man and took up the reins of the government, with a firm hand. She took command of the army and even fought in battle. 

During her reign, Raziya adopted the policy of appointing non-Turkish nobles to higher posts. A number of Indian Muslims were appointed as Qazis. An Abyssinian named Jamaluddin Yakut was appointed as master of the horse. Raziya also organized an offensive against the Rajput Ranthambore and captured the fort. 

The Downfall of Raziya: By consolidating her position against the influential Turkish nobles, Raziya drove them to a group which conspired against her. The display of courage and authority by a woman ruler roused the anger of the nobles, who also resented the undue favors she bestowed on the non-Turkish nobles, especially the Abyssinian officer Yakut. Besides, there were a section of people who could never tolerate the notion of a woman being the head of the state. Raziya had given offence to the orthodox Muslim opinion by casting off female attire and the seclusion of the harem.  

These factors led to a conspiracy against Raziya. The leader of this conspiracy was Aeitigin. The others were the Governor of Bhatinda, I.e., Malik Altunia and the Governor of Lahore, Kabir Khan. Kabir Khan revolted against Raziya in 1240, but was suppressed by her. Within a fortnight, Altunia revolted. Raziya marched against the rebel and reached Bhatinda. In the meanwhile, Aeitigin, captured Yakut and put him to death. Raziya was imprisoned at Bhatinda. The third son of Iltutmish Bahram was made the new ruler. Altunia did not get what he had expected from the revolt and so wanted to march on to Delhi to capture it by force. In August 1240, Altunia released Raziya from prison, married her and proceeded in disguise to Delhi to capture it. But they were defeated by Bahram’s army and both Altunia and Raziya were killed. 

An Estimate of Raziya: Raziya occupies a remarkable place among the Turkish rulers in India. She was the only Muslim woman who adorned the throne of Delhi and was respected and feared by her courtiers. She was a brave and energetic ruler who restored the prestige of the Turkish kingdom in India. She curbed the power of the Amirs and nobles and became an absolute ruler whose authority was supreme.  

Like her father Iltutmish, Raziya was determined to assert her authority and establish an independent and absolute monarchy. Besides suppressing the Turkish nobles, who challenged her authority, Raziya governed the Sultanate in a befitting manner. Bold and courageous, she gave up her veil (purdah), held open court, listened to the grievances of her subjects and exercised general supervision over the administrative departments. In battles, Raziya rode at the head of her armies. Thus, Raziya proved her ability, love of justice and capacity for hard work.  

Referring to Raziya, the contemporary historian, Minhaj-us-Siraj says that Raziya was a great sovereign and sagacious just, beneficent, a patron of the learned, a dispenser of justice, the cherisher of her subjects and of warlike talent and endowed with all admirable attributes and qualifications necessary for kings. But he concluded with the lamentation that these excellent qualifications could not be of any advantage to her, as she was a woman. 

After Raziya: After the death of Raziya, the lack of a capable leader was keenly felt. During the following six years, three weaklings, Muizuddin, Behramshah and Alauddin Masudshah, sat on the throne in quick succession to be deposed and killed by the powerful nobles of the court. 

Nasiruddin Mahmud, a young son of Iltutmish who was crowned in 1246 A.D. was a pious person with little aptitude for administration. He left the matters of the state in the hands of his able minister Ghiyasuddin Balban. Balban was the leader of the Turkish slaves cum nobles known as the ‘corps of forty’. These nobles divided the fiefs among themselves and occupied the highest offices in the state. Iltutmish had kept them in check but they had begun to reassert their authority after his death.  

There was internal disorder – the governor of Bengal, Tughril Khan had become independent, the Hindus of the Doab rebelled and there was the danger of Mongol invasion. Ghiyasuddin Balban as the chief man under the king showed remarkable ability in these circumstances. The rebellion of Doab was suppressed. The Mongol attacks were repulsed. The frontier military posts were strongly garrisoned and the ambitions of the other Turkish nobles were curbed by Balban. When Nasiruddin died in 1266, the choice for the throne was obvious. It could be no one else but Balban.

RAJPUT KINGDOMS

 'Rajput' comes from the word 'Rajputra' - son of a king. There are different theories about the origin of Rajputs. The Rajputs are described as a mixed race. They include tribes of foreign origin. Some Rajput families are said to descend from tribes like Bhils and Gonds. Foreigeners like Persians, Greeks, Sakas, Parthians, Huns, Gurjars and Jats got assimilated into the Hindu population.

Another theory is that the Rajputs were Agni Kula the fire race and they descended from 'Agni' or 'born from the ancestral fire of Brahma'. Out of this fire came four warrior clans namely Prathiharas, Chalukyas or Solankis, Parmaras and Chauhans.

The Rajputs introduced an age of chivalry and militarism. A Rajput was known to keep his word of honor. His integrity and high code of behavior were more important to him than anything else. His virtues earned him a glorious place in History. A Rajput lady was equally heroic. She preferred death to dishonor. Rajput society was feudal and clannish which contributed to its weakness.

Rajput polity was feudal in its set up. The Rajputs were split into various clans, each under one or more hereditary ruling family and such clans that became prominent have been identified by historians. All land was supposed to belong to the King or ruling chief who divided the land among his subordinates. They rendered military service to the king or paid a fixed revenue in return for the lands granted to them. Such a feudal setup was bound to be inefficient. It encouraged individualism and disunity. A brief look at the political history of the Rajput kingdoms would prove this. 

Among the earlies clans to rise to importance was the Guarat Pratihara class. Their first headquarter was Nirmal in South Rajasthan about 50 miles from Mt. Abu. Here a powerful kingdom arose around 800 A.D. The founder of this kingdom was Nagabhatta. The enemies and rivals of this kingdom were the Palas of Bengal and Rashtrakulas of Delhi. The city of Kanauj and dominance over North India was the prize for which the three dynasties were fighting.

The greatest Pratihara King Raja Bhoja (835-855) belonged to the first dynasty. Kanauj extending from Bihar in the East to Kanauj in the west. He was succeeded by Mahendraraja who ruled from 855-910. He maintained the power and prestige of the Prathiharas. A great Sanskrit scholar Rajashekar was in his court. 

He was succeeded by Mahipal I (910 - 940). He forced a severe defeat at the hands of the Rashtraputra King Indra III who captured Kanauj. Though Mahipal recovered his capital his kingdom did not fully recover. The feudatories became independent of the Pratiharas. The Chandelas and teh Chedolis became independent in the region between the Yamuna and the Narmada. The Chalukyas and the Solankis became independent in Gujarat which the Parmaras in Malwa. The Pratihara Kingdom lingered on till the invasion of Muhmud of Ghazni who defeated Rajyapal in 1018 A.D. and sacked Kanauj.

The Chalukyas and the Solankis were one of the Agnikula clans. They rules in Anhilwara in Gujarat from 974 to the beginning of the thirteenth century. Gujarat was finally conquered. Mulraja was the founder of this dynasty. The most famous king was Jayasinha Siddharaja, who is a popular hero of Gujarati legends. He was a great builder and a patron of the Jain religion. The Jain scholars Heerachandra lived in his court. The last Chalukya King was Bhendua II. He was defeated by the Turkish invasions in 1197 A.D.

The Chanderas ruled in the area now known as Bundelkhand. Their most important cities were Mahoba, Kalinger, Khajuraho. The Chandelas were great builders. The fort at Kalenjar was known for its strength. But more famous are the temples at Khajuraho. The most important Chandela King was Dhanga. The last important ruler was Pramaradideva. He was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D. and Chandela independence came to an end. However the kingdom lingered on till its final annexation to the Delhi Sultanate in 1310 A.D.

The Parmara Dynasty of Dhar in Malwa was founded in the tenth century. The Parmaras were great patrons of Sanskrit learning. The greatest of Parmara Kings was Raja Bhoj who ruled from 1018 to 1060. He was a great warrior as well as a scholar of astronomy, poetry. He created a Sanskrit college and he got constructed a very large lake called the Bhopuri lake. In 1060, Raja Bhoj was defeated by a combined attack of the rulers of Gujarat and Chedda kingdom. The Parmara power declined after this. To the South fo Bundelkhand was the Chedda or Kalachuri Kingdom. 

The Hindushahis of Punjab: In Punjab, the Rajput kingdom was set up under the Hindushahis, King Jaipala of this dynasty tried to resist but with little success, the invasions of Subjktagen and his more famous son Mahmud Ghazni. Jaipala was succeeded by his son Anandapala who continued the struggle iwht Mahmud but failed. The Hindushahis of Waihind were unable to resist the right of Mahmud Ghazni who invaded India seventeen times.

Mahmud died in 1030 A.D. During this period between the death of Mahmud of Ghazni and the final Turkish conquest of North India a number of Rajput clans rose to prominence. The most important of these were the Ghadvals of Kanauj and the Chauhans of Ajmer and Delhi. In the latter half of the tenth century, when Pratihara authority weakened, there was teh rise of the new imperial dynasty known as Gahadvala. This dynasty gradually established its authority over Kanauj Benaras and surrounding areas.

The last Gahadvala King was Jayachandra. Mohammad of Ghor defeated him in a great battle of Ghandawar near river Yamuna and Kanauj was captured. The Rathors of Jodhpur claim their descent from Jayachandra to a young boy who escaped from death in this battle.

from about 700, the Chauhan clan ruled the area around Ajmer. There are different branches of Chauhan clan. The most important was the group that established itself at Ajmer with their secondary headquaters at Delhi. The last king of this line is Prithviraj Chauhan, famous in legends. The story of Prithviraj has been immortalized by the poet Bardai in his poem called 'Prithviraj Raso'. Particularly the story of the daring kidnapping of Princess Sanyukta, the daughter of his bitter enemy, Raja Jaychand. Prithviraj organised resistance to Turkish invader and in 1191 A.D. he defeated Mohammed Ghor in the first battle of Tarain. 

However Ghor returned the next year. In the second battle of Tarain, 1192, Prithviraj was defeated and his capital of Ajmer was captured. Jaichand who refused to join the Rajputs was the next to suffer defeat. By 1200 A.D. the whole of North India except Rajasthan, Malwa and parts of Gujarat had been conquered and Rajput supremacy was at an end.

Failure of Rajputs:

They lacked a sense of unity, nationalism and fought amongst themselves.

Only the Rajput elite were in the army. Defence was restricted to a particular caste namely Rajput.

Military technology was inferior to the Turks. Turkish invaders were stronger militarily.

When the Turkish invasions took place, the Rajputs were more preoccupied with mutual warfare. They did not think of pooling their onslaught in the process they were defeated.

Causes of the Failure of the Rajputs against the Muslim Invaders: 

Absence of a powerful empire: At the time of the Muslim invasion, India was divided into several small states. There was no powerful central authority that could offer strong resistance to the invaders and face them determinedly.

Disunity among the Indian rulers: India was not only divided into several small states but the rulers of these states were engaged in constant warfare among themselves. It was perhaps the chief cause of the Rajput defeat that they lacked unity and organisation. These mutual jealousies had made the Rajput rulers weak.

Lack of military Organization: The Muslim armies were generally commanded by a common general who was their supreme authority and whose command was to be obeyed. On the other hand, the Rajput forces were commanded by their petty feudal chiefs which made any concerted efforts not only difficult but also impossible.

Outdated war tactics: The Rajputs were brave warriors but their war tactics were age old and outdated. They depended more on their elephants which sometimes scared by the Muslim archers ran amuck to trample their own armies, while the Muslim invaders were armed by new methods of warfare. 

Only Kshatriyas fight the war: In India it was only the kshatriyas who bore the duty of fighting against the enemy to defend their country. Other classes were indifferent to any political upheaval. In the event of the Kshatriyas being routed the whole country surrendered. 

Neglect of the National Borders: Rajputs never cared to strengthen their frontier and particularly the North-Western frontier of India as the Muslim rulers like Balban and Alauddin Khilji did in later period. Had there been a strong border the invaders could be checked beyond the frontier lines of India. But as the borders were free and unprotected the enemies could easily cross into India without check or hinderence. 

Economic Causes: Constant wars had wrecked the Rajput economy. Wars were both internal as well as against the foreign invaders. The Turkish invaders had plundered the country and carried her riches away to their lands. Frequent invasions had affected the industries and craft as well.