LINGUISM

 India is a land of many languages. Post independence the states were reorganized on linguistic basis.

 The Constitution of India has approved of 22 languages. The Constitution of India has designated the official language of the Government of India as Hindi written in the Devanagari script, as well as English. Hindi and English are used for official purposes such as parliamentary proceedings, judiciary, communications between the Central Government and State Government. States within India have the liberty to specify their own official language through legislation.

CAUSES OF LINGUISM

Literature – love of literature creates and strengthens a sense of loyalty to a particular language among groups.

Geographical conditions – people living in a particular locality tend to speak the same language. This promotes local identity and distinctiveness and reinforces love for ones own language

Historical causes – the freedom struggle has been related to the language and thus the states were divided on linguistic grounds.

Political causes – narrow minded political parties create linguistic feeling among the people of a locality and exploit their sentiments during elections

Psychological causes – language raises emotional feelings for a homogenous group.

Linguistic groups are tied together by a common interest and it leads to a spirit of regionalism and a feeling or separatism in the minds of the citizens.

CONSEQUENCES OF LINGUISM

Regionalism -  linguism ultimately leads to regionalism

Formation of regional political parties – linguism has led to formation of regional political parties in some states. These political parties often complicate Center – State relations.

Harassment of linguistic minorities – the state reorganization commission had provided for safeguard of linguist minorities but in reality, this is not so. As a result, complications develop which threaten national unity.

Demand for separate states – linguist conflicts because of selfish politicians leads to partition of states.

Erosion of national feeling – linguistic and regional loyalties take away from national loyalty.

Inter state border disputes – arise especially in border areas. For e.g. goans are divided on the basis of Konkani and Marathi.

REMEDIAL MEASURES

Development of a common script for all languages – Currently there are a number of scripts in India and a common script could break the barrier that separates one language from another. M. N. Srinivas suggests the use of the Roman script

Development of a common language – Hindi has been recognized as the national language. However, over the years there have been problems with regard to the same. Thus, this should be tackled with utmost care

Ban on regional political parties – that promote linguism and divide the people for selfish gain.

The Sarkaria commission (appointed in 1983 to examine the language problem in India) recommended that styles, forms and expression of English along with other regional languages re to be retained in the process of development of official language. The three languages formula such as regional language, Hindi and English should properly be implemented.

REGIONALISM

Regionalism is a feeling of loyalty to a particular part of the country.

A region may be defined as 'a well defined territorial unit, including particular language or languages, jatis, ethnic groups, or tribes, particular social setting and cultural pattern, folk dance, music, art, etc.' Each region has a distinct socio-cultural personality within the territorial framework of India.

Regionalism may be defined as 'consciousness, and loyalty to a distinct area within a country, usually characterised by common culture and language or historical and social background'. 

India being a multi racial and multi lingual nation faces the problem of regionalism. Regionalism is not unhealthy or anti-national if the people of a region have genuine pride in their language and culture. However, when it crosses a reasonable limit, it harms national unity.

FORMS OF EXPRESSION OF REGIONALISM

Regionalism expresses itself in different forms in our country such as boundary disputes, disputes over sharing of river water, demand for preference for the local people in matters of employment and protection to their industries and trade in the name of 'sons of the soil', etc.

Examples of regionalism in India

1966 – Shiv Sena Maharashtra – Anti Kannadigas – agitated against the South Indians who were workers in Udipi hotels in Mumbai. This saw lathi-charge retaliation at the Maharashtra border.

1980s – Khalistan movement – aimed to create a Sikh homeland

2008 – MNS – targeting North Indians – Bhojpuri films not allowed to run in theatres in Maharashtra. North Indian vendors harassed.

Interstate disputes – boundary disputes – Karnataka and Maharashtra in Belgaum, Kerela and Karnataka in Kasargoda, assam and Nagaland in Rengma reserved forests, Punjab and Haryana in Chandigarh.

CAUSES OF REGIONALISM

Unbalanced regional development – Certain regions have a concentration of industries and factories, sufficient education and health facilities, developed communication networks and rapid agricultural development. However, certain regions are underdeveloped. This leads to disparity among the economically neglected regions.

Political administrative factors – regional political parties and local leaders exploit regional sentiments, e.g. Telugu desam in Andhra Pradesh, Assam Gana Parishad in Assam and Akali Dal in Punjab.

Making Hindi the national language – Post independence, making Hindi the national language led to nationwide agitation and regionalism. Southern states felt this was in imposition on them.

Desire for regional independence – regional independence over their regions in order to improve the condition of the people leads to regionalism.

Negligence from state government – continuous neglect of people belong to a particular region and not allowing them to participate in political activities, or using their resources without concerning them led to regionalism. It also gave rise to the concept of ‘sons of the soil’.

EFFECTS OF REGIONALISM

Makes people narrow minded and unaccepting of people from other regions and cultures

Develops a superiority complex in the minds of people who have occupied an area for many years and gives them a false sense of ownership.

Has a negative impact on national integration

Leads to formation of multiple communities within one nation and restricts free interaction of culture and tradition between a country’s citizens.

It is used a political leverage in order to secure a vote bank.

Demand for reservations to local language speaking persons increased for employment.

Regionalism leads to demand for a separate state.

MEASURES TO RESOLVE REGIONALISM

Balanced distribution of national resources – will lead to a feeling of oneness and people from particular regions will not feel neglected.

Abolition of regional parties – as they play vote bank politics and thus exploit the people

Development of backward regions – economic development will lead to more unity

Develop means of transport and communication – a proper link to the surrounding regions will ensure interaction and contact with neighboring regions and will reduce the feeling of isolation. This will also enable economic and social development

Education – will be a powerful way to resolve regional conflicts

Mass media – can play a powerful role in uniting people from all regions and can promote unity and equality among the masses. This in turn will help national development.

CASTEISM (INDIA)

Traditional Indian society has been organized around caste structures and caste identities which are hereditary. Caste is a ‘hereditary endogamous localized group, having a traditional association with an occupation and a particular position in the local hierarchy of castes’ – M. N. Sriniwas.

The Indian caste system is the most unjust oppressive social system and the practice of untouchability is its worst feature. The caste system propagates inequality.

Caste system continues to influence intergroup relations even today. Even a change in religion does not destroy caste system.

INEQUALITIES CAUSED BY CASTE SYSTEM

Lack of professional and business opportunities – As the caste system is considered hereditary, the lower caste are not allowed to exchange professions or move up the social ladder.

Child marriage – In order to avoid intercaste marriages at a later stage, child marriage is encouraged.

Inequality and unrest in society – Due to inequality there is anger among the people. the suppressed masses have to fight for their rights against the upper castes.

Socio economic inequalities – are caused as wealth gets accumulated in with the upper castes who exploit the lower castes.

Freedom curbed – Lower castes are not allowed to socialize outside the caste and are forced to follow a number of restrictions.

Anti – Democracy – being unequal the caste system is anti democracy.

Low status of women – women are denied education and are harassed by members of the upper castes.

Untouchability – lower castes are forced to continue their unclean occupation and are exploited by upper castes

False prestige among higher castes – A false sense of prestige is created among upper castes who continue to exploit lower castes.

Hampers national development – The lower castes have no voice in national development and advancement. They are not allowed opportunities for progress and this in turn affects national development.

MEASURES TO SOLVE CASTEISM IN INDIA

Encourage education – educate lower castes about their democratic and moral rights. Educating lower caste and women will prevent them from being exploited.

Industrialization – increase employment rate and opportunities especially in rural areas.

Mass media – plays an important role in changing the mindset of people and can create awareness about the ill effects of the caste system

Judiciary and police – must take necessary steps to be unbiased when faced with crimes against the lower castes.

NGOs – can work to eradicate caste discrimination. They can pressurize the government to promote education, land reforms, equal opportunities and uniform legislation. When the media fails to address issues faced by the lower castes, NGO’s can create awareness about the problems faced by them and the violence against them. They can also provide employment opportunities and promote education among the lower caste communities.

Social movements – like the Bramho Samaj by Raja Ram Mohan Roy rejected caste system and stood for brother hood of man. Prarthana Samaj by Justice Ranade promoted intercaste marriage and remarriage of widows.

Constitution of India – Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination on the basis of caste, race, religion, gender or place of birth. Article 16 provides equal opportunity in matters of employment. Article 338 has created National Commission for Scheduled Castes to safe guard their interests.

If we can change the mindset of people against caste system and make people believe in equality of the masses it will definitely make the world a better place.

COMMUNALISM (INDIA)

Communalism is an ideology which states that society is divided into religious communities whose interests differ. Communalism makes a person feel antagonism towards another community. Communalism arises out of religious fundamentalism.

Communalist is a person 'who is essentially interested in 'using' and 'exploiting' religion for some personal or private, or for political, electoral purpose with the sole objective of gaining power, position, status, influence, wealth and cheap popularity'.

The two forms of Communalism in India are:

a) Communal Tension  - Communalism assumes the form of  'communal tension' when the religious sentiments and feelings of other religious community are grieviously hurt, on petty issues such as playing of loud music near a religious centre.

b) Communal Politics - The concept of communal politics involves the active use of religion as the sole basis for the new political process, grounded in popular participation, undertake by communal or religious political parties and organisations, which claim to be the representative of their co religionists.

Communal politics is opposed to secular and national politics. 

Some examples of communal violence in India

1947 – Partition of India – which led to hatred, violence, rape and bloodshed. The large number of refugees both in India and Pakistan were a result of communal hatred and these displaced people had to struggle to survive. There as a huge problem of rehabilitation of refugees.

1984 – Anti Sikh Riots – The appeal for separate state of ‘Khalistan’, Operation Blue Star and the assassination of the Prime Minister Mrs. Indira Gandhi, by her Sikh bodyguard, led to communal violence among Hindus and Sikhs. However, Hindus and Sikhs now have cordial relations.

1989 – Ethnic Cleansing of Kashmiri Hindu Pundits – Extremist terrorism in Kashmir led to the Kashmiri pundits fleeing from Kashmir and taking refuge in their own country.

1992 – Babri Masjid Demolition, Ayodhya – This incident saw destruction across the country. Mumbai was subjected to a communal holocaust. The issue is still in court. This was followed by the Mumbai blasts.

2002 – Godhra – The Sabarmati Express with karsevaks returning from Ayodhya was set fire to. This was followed by the Gujarat riots where Hindus massacred the Muslims.

2002 – Akshardham – Attack by two terrorists from Lashkar-e-Toiba

2012 – Assam Communal violence – clashes between tribal population and Bangladeshi immigrants led to riots between Bodos and Bengali speaking Muslims.

2013 – Muzaffarnagar Violence – Ethnic clashes between Jats and Muslims have said to have occurred after a facebook post and due to the eve teasing case in Shamli.

CAUSES OF COMMUNALISM

Past History – The partition is still a bone of contention among the two communities.

Vote bank politics – votes go to leaders who belong to the same community

Presence of communal parties - who reflect communal ideologies.

Majority religious community dominance – Certain leaders promote religious ideologies to gain followers

Poverty – and unemployment lead to backwardness and illiteracy leading to a narrow mindset and does not encourage forward thinking.

Isolation of minority communities – leads to communal tensions in society

Cross border factors – lead to insecurities and communal tension

Religious conversion – every Indian has the right to follow the religion of his/her choice.

Failure of government – to take necessary action in times of communal clashes causing further hatred and destruction of innocent lives as well as public property.

Bias Media – may support a particular community and its cause leading to unnecessary misunderstandings

Psychological causes – Mindsets of individuals and their prejudiced beliefs can lead to communalism.

EFFECTS Or CONSEQUENCES

Communalism leads to intolerance and violence

Flow of the country’s resources lead to unproductive activities instead of productive ones

Damage to innocent lives and public property

Foreign investors do not want to risk their funds which leads to loss to the country’s economy

Disruption of law and order due to riots and anti-social activities

Problem of refugees and their rehabilitation cripples the nation.

MEASURES TO RESOLVE COMMUNALISM

While it is important to encourage a feeling of nationalism, this must be done by safeguarding all 

citizens irrespective of religious background.

Communal political parties must be stopped from promoting a communal agenda which will destroy 

the unity of the nation.

Mass media must be used to promote peace and equality and not inter religious conflict.

There must be religious tolerance among people.

There is a need for people to change their mindsets and to learn to live in peace, brotherhood and harmony.

The election commission must ban all political parties that promote a communal agenda.

Laws and a just judiciary are important when making decisions on communal issues and ensuring justice for all citizens.

Education, economic development and employment opportunities will reduce poverty and in turn improve the mindset of the people.

Communalism is a psychological disorder and the youth and children must be made aware of the negative impact of this stigma.

ADDITIONAL INFO

6 Dimensions of Communalism (as given by T. K. Ooman)

The Assimilationist Dimension - Small religious groups which prefer to get assimilated, integrated with a bigger group. E.g. Jains are called Hindus

The Welfarist Communalism - When a particular community tries to pool in resources for the welfare of ones community members. The welfare - in the field of education, health, cultural growth, etc. For e.g. Jain Hospital, Minority Colleges etc

Retreatist Communalism - When small communities choose to keep away from politics and choose to retain its original identity. e.g. Parsi Community

Retaliatory Dimension - When one community attempts to harm another community. This is views as the most destructive form of communalism. Most of the communal riots are associated with teh retaliatory form of communalism.

Separatist Dimension - stands for a community wanting to maintain its cultural identity and demanding ones separate territorial identity in order to retain its separate existence. e.g. Jharkhand

Secessionist Dimension - When a community demands not just a separate territorial identity but also asks for a separate political identity. e.g. Khalistan. It is the most harmful dimension to the unity and welfare of the nation. It does not imply merely the creation of a new state. It also implies a direct threat to the unitary democratic set up. 

Language and Media

Language is a primary means of socialization.

It enables us interact with social, political and economic power structures.

It is the primary medium for the construction and transmission of knowledge ad for the spread of ideas.

Language and society are inseparable.

Apart from being the primary tool for communication, language helps establish peace and order in society by exercising authority and power. However, it can also destroy society when used inappropriately.

Media represents language related issues.

Media’s use of language is central to the constitution of what people think language is or ought to be like.

Individuals across the world are exposed to images and information irrespective distance. Thus, today there is a global flow of communication and information.

5 key elements that link language and media and take research in the field forward:

1.       Communication process is essentially linear; with the result that

2.       Audiences are passive receivers at the end of a chain of media influence

3.       Whose key function is the transmission of information

4.       In the performance of which the media work no differently from any other, face to face, source of representations while,

5.       Simultaneously (and paradoxically) adopting the rhetoric of public address.

According to the linear model, social influences are unidirectional.

Linear to Cyclic Communication

With the coming of television came Lasswells Theory of communication – ‘who says what in which channel to whom and with what effect’.

Sender -> message -> receiver

Hall then gave the Encoding and Decoding – cyclic model of communication

From Passive to Active Audiences: Interpretations – Different people and cultures analysed differently.

From Information Transmission to Ritual Communication – For e.g. Anthropology - Media can be analysed as generating occasions akin to ceremonies which hold us – producers and consumers of media meanings within a shared culture. E.g. Friendship Day

Live broadcasting of ‘historic’ events – e.g. Olympic Games, Royal Wedding (England), Funeral of  Mother Theresa, etc.

Global audiences can participate from wherever they are.

From “Just Talk” to Public Communication – Political talk – everyday talk. The speaker claims to speak the truth and invites listeners to share knowledge, to trust the speaker and join in a shared value system.

Today media provide open access, unconstrained conversation and consensus-seeking.

From addressing the Public to a Diversity of Rhetorical Forms – Media intends to inform and persuade – response of audience is conceived in terms of attitude change. Earlier larger audiences gathered at the same place at the same time to hear a discourse. Today that is not necessary.

Broadcast media uses the communicative style with informal conversation. (Today it is more interactive – you can tweet, comment, like, post, etc.)

Social Media is changing Language – E.g. Unfriend, selfie

Online platforms change fast. However, they have an impact on and influence the language in which we write. (formal writing has now become a combination of informal, personal communication)

New ways of communicating

-          Acronyms

-          Abbreviations

-          Neologisms

-          Emoticons

-          Limited no of characters

-          Hashtags

With social media we tend to share more personal information to an even larger audience.

Joseph Klapper's PHENOMENISTIC / REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Phenomenistic Theory - Theory that media are rarely the sole cause of effects and are relatively powerless when compared with other social factors. 

Joseph Klapper was an eminent scientist. According to him, 'Mass communication does not ordinarily serve as a necessary or sufficient cause of audience effects, but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors'.

These mediating factors according to Klapper are - church, family, school, etc - which do not change media habits of people but only reinforce them.

According to Klapper, the media affect people strongly when mediating factors are not present.

Klapper believed that the mediating factors shaped an individuals personality traits, which were reinforced by media. He observed that if people were presented with the content that went against their beliefs, they were unlikely to pay any attention to it.

e.g. fairness cream / figure consciousness

The ads are not aimed at changing people's thinking but reinforcing what they already believe in.

According to Klapper, if media deals with new topics they can exercise greater influence on the audience, which hasn't cultivated any preconceived notions about them. 

In such situations, the media can influence the public, but only for a short period, which is as long as the issue does not become public knowledge. Once society is / becomes aware of the topic, mediating factors will take over and control it.

This theory was based on social science research carried out before 1960 when TV had not acquired the status of a mass media tool. 

HEARING IMPAIRED / AUDITORILLY HANDICAPPED

Hearing impairment or hearing loss occurs when you lose part or all of your ability to hear. 

Hearing impairments are categorized based on the minimum sound that can be heard with the better ear.

There are four levels of deafness or hearing impairment. These are:

·         Mild deafness or mild hearing impairment: The person can only detect sounds between 25 and 29 decibels (dB). They may find it hard to understand the words other people are saying, especially if there is a lot of background noise.

·         Moderate deafness or moderate hearing impairment: The person can only detect sounds between 40 and 69 dB. Following a conversation using hearing alone is very difficult without using a hearing aid.

·         Severe deafness: The person only hears sounds above 70 to 89 dB. A severely deaf person must either lip-read or use sign language in order to communicate, even if they have a hearing aid.

·         Profound deafness: Anybody who cannot hear a sound below 90 dB has profound deafness. Some people with profound deafness cannot hear anything at all, at any decibel level. Communication is carried out using sign language, lip-reading, or reading and writing.

Types

There are three different types of hearing loss:

1) Conductive hearing loss

This means that the vibrations are not passing through from the outer ear to the inner ear, specifically the cochlea. Most cases of this type of hearing loss can be corrected medically or surgically. This type can occur for many reasons, including:

·         Fluid in the middle ear as a result of cold

·         an excessive build-up of earwax

·         an ear infection with inflammation and fluid buildup

·         a perforated eardrum

·         a defective eardrum

·         allergies

·         benign tumors or having a foreign body in the ear

·         structural abnormalities of the outer ear, ear canal or middle ear

2) Sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL)

Also referred to as nerve Hearing loss occurs when there is damage to either the auditory nerve or the cochlea which is the inner ear. The hearing loss in SNHL is permanent, although it may be possible to treat it with hearing aids.

SNHL is caused due to:

-       exposure to excessively loud noise

-       head trauma or sudden air pressure changes

-       illnesses (like meningitis)

-       structural abnormality of the inner ear

-       tumors

-       aging

-       medication side effects

-       autoimmune inner ear disease

-       abnormal growth of the bone that is in the middle ear

3). Central Hearing Loss

This occurs when there are problems within the brain that interfere with the ability to interpret or understand sounds. This is the rarest type of hearing impairment and the hardest to treat.

The causes include

-       damage to brainstem structures

-       severe head trauma

-       damage to the auditory nerves or the pathways that lead to them

-       brain tumors

4). Functional hearing loss

This occurs when the functioning of the ears is normal, however the individual shows reduced response or does not respond to sounds. Hearing loss is caused by mental health problems such as ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and depression

TREATMENT FOR HEARING IMPAIRED

Removing wax blockage – earwax blockage is a reversible cause of hearing loss. The doctor may remove ear wax by loosening it with oil and then flushing, scooping or suctioning out the wax.

Surgical procedures – traumatic ear injury or repeated infections may require surgical procedures

Hearing aids – In case of inner ear damage, a hearing aid can help by making it easier to hear with increased sound. An audiologist can discuss the potential benefits of hearing aid with the patient and recommend and fit the device.

Cochlear implants – In case of severe hearing loss, a cochlear implant can be an option. This implant compensates for the damaged or nonworking parts of the inner ear.

Assistive listening devices – Hearing aids may not be useful for a particular case and so there are other accessories and assistive listening devices that can bridge the gap to enable better communication.