MEDIA STUDIES SYBAMMC CLASS NOTES

Module 1. Eras, Relevance, Connection to Culture, Literature

- Era of Mass Society and Culture - till 1965

- Normative Theories - Social Responsibility Theory

- Development Media Theory

Module 2. Media Theories

- Propaganda and Propaganda Theory, Origin and meaning of Propaganda

- Hypodermic Needle / Magic Bullet

- Harold Lasswell

- Scientific Perspectives to Limited Perspectives Theory

- Paul Lazarsfeld - Two Step Flow

- Carl Hovland and Attitude Change

Module 3. Cultural Perspectives

Various Schools:

- Toronto School (Mc Luhan)

- Birmingham (Stuart Hall)

- Frankfurt - Theodore Adorno and Maz Horkheimer

- Raymond WIlliams - Technological Determinism

- Harold Innis - Bias of Communication

Media and Identity - Feminism / Racism / Ethnicity etc. / Caste / Class / Tribal / Queer Representations

Module 4. Media Effects

Theories on Media effects

- Media Effect and Behavior

- Media Effect Theories and the Argument against Media Effect Theories

- Agenda Setting Theory

- Cultivation Theory

- Politics and Media studies - Media bias, Media decency, Media Consolidation

Module 5. New Media and the Age of the Internet

- New Media

- Henry Jenkins - Participatory Culture

- Internet a Public Sphere - Habermas to Twitter

- McLuhan's Concept of Global Village in the Age of Netflix

- Uses and Gratification in the Age of Internet

MASS MEDIA RESEARCH NOTES

 MODULE I       Research In Media 

Introduction to Mass Media and Research 

- Relevance, Scope of Mass Media Research 

- Role of research in the media

• Steps involved in the Research Process

• Qualitative and Quantitative Research

• Discovery of research problem, identifying dependent and independent variables, developing hypothesis

MODULE II  Research design

• Concept, types and uses

• Research Designs:

a) Exploratory

b) Descriptive and

c) Causal.

MODULE III Data Collection 

a. Primary Data – Collection Methods

I. Depth interviews

II. Focus group

III. Surveys

IV. Observations

V. Experimentations

b. Secondary Data Collection Methods

c. Literature review

d. Designing Questionnaire and measurement techniques

            a. Types and basics of questionnaire

            b. Projective techniques

            c. Attitude measurement scales

e. Sampling process

f. Data Tabulation (Mean median mode) and Research report format

MODULE IV Content Analysis 

Content analysis

a.Definition and uses

b. Quantitative and Qualitative approach

c. Steps in content analysis

d. Devising means of a quantification system

e. Limitations of content analysis

MODULE V Application Of Research 

a. Readership and Circulation survey

b. TRP

c. RRP

d. Audience Research

e. Exit Polls

f. Advertising Consumer Research

MODULE VI The Semiotics 

The Semiotics of the Mass Media

a. What is semiotics in media?

b. Why is semiotics important?

c. What are codes in semiotics?

d. Semiotics and media

DATA TABULATION

 Data Tabulation 

Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of the statistical data in columns or rows. 

It involves the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in a form designed to explain the problem under consideration.

 Tabulation helps in drawing the inference from the statistical figures.

ONE WAY TABLE

A one-way table is a frequency table for a single categorical variable.

TWO WAY TABLE

A two-way frequency table is a frequency table for two categorical variables.

RELEVANCE, SCOPE OF MASS MEDIA RESEARCH

Relevance and scope of Mass Media Research 

What is Research? 

Research is a derivative of the French word 'Researche' which means quest, search, pursuit and search for truth. 

In simple words research refers to a search for knowledge. It is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. 

It is systematized effort to gain new knowledge. 

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions or problems through the application of scientific procedures.

Objectives of Research 

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon / recurring event / happening

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group 

• To test a hypothesis or a set of hypotheses

• To find out the cause of a phenomenon 

• To establish the cause and effect relationship between variable 

• To explore new ideas and thoughts 

• To experiment new methods of problem solving 

Scope of Mass Media Research

 • Find out about Target audience 

• Research aids in decision making. 

• Understand units of measurement or numbers: audience size, profits, or unit sales. 

• Process to reach the goal of getting the highest number (viewership): First find out what the people want (customers, audience, readers, etc.).  Then, give it to them Finally, tell them that you gave it to them.

 In mass media, research is an important criterion of decision making, regardless of the media – print, broadcast, outdoor, etc. 

Use of Research in different media forms: 

• Electronic Media 

• Print Media 

• Advertising and Public Relations 

• Internet Research methods 

Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for conduction of research. Research techniques refer to the behaviour and instruments we use in performing research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of processing data and the like and Research methods refer to the behaviour and instruments used in selecting and constructing research technique. 

Research methodology 

Research methodology is a way or approach to systematically solve the research problem. It may be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

ATTITUDE CHANGE THEORY | CARL HOVLAND

The main reason for the attitude change theory to come into effect was World War II. When World War II broke out the American public showed reluctance to allow their government to take part in it as they realized the effects of World War I (and still felt the repercussions).

Therefore the government embarked on publicity campaigns to mould public opinion in favor of the nation joining the war.

The US Office of War Information (OWI) commissioned Carl Hovland and his team of researchers to test the effect governments propaganda was making on the public. This led to the development of attitude change theory.

This theory tells us how communication can influence ones attitude and behavior.

The Attitude Change Theory is based upon two important elements: Dissonance and Selective Processes.

Dissonance is founded on the belief that a new or paradoxical situation makes us uncomfortable and gives us the feeling of dissonance.

In order to overcome this discomfort we take recourse to three interrelated selective processes:

Selective exposure

Selective retention

Selective perception

Selective Exposure – Admitting only such messages that go hand in hand with our beliefs and attitudes.

e.g. One is not interested in information about a Mac Book. Once you buy it – you read the information – this is done to assure oneself that the money spent is not wasted.

Selective Perception – ensures that a person will interpret a message in the light of already existing beliefs and attitudes.

Selective Retention – cause very little attitude change as they allow admittance to only selective content. But this is true only when the media content is mostly informational in nature and not when it is cultural in nature.

e.g. media tackling issues related to racial prejudice… devdasi system in India and prostitution.

STUART HALL | ENCODING DECODING | CIRCUIT OF CULTURE

 ENCODING AND DECODING – STUART HALL

The Encoding/decoding model of communication was first developed by cultural studies scholar Stuart Hall in 1973. Titled 'Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse', Hall's essay offers a theoretical approach of how media messages are produced, disseminated, and interpreted. Hall proposed that audience members can play an active role in decoding messages as they rely on their own social contexts and might be capable of changing messages themselves through collective action.

This simply means, encoding/decoding is the translation of a message that is easily understood. When you decode a message, you extract the meaning of that message in ways that make sense to you. Decoding has both verbal and non-verbal forms of communication: Decoding behavior without using words means observing body language and its associated emotions. For example, some body language signs for when someone is upset, angry, or stressed would be a use of excessive hand/arm movements, red in the face, crying, and even sometimes silence. Sometimes when someone is trying to get a message across to someone, the message can be interpreted differently from person to person. Decoding is all about the understanding of what someone already knows, based on the information given throughout the message being received. Whether there is a large audience or exchanging a message to one person, decoding is the process of obtaining, absorbing, understanding, and sometimes using the information that was given throughout a verbal or non-verbal message.

In the essay ‘Encoding and Decoding…; Stuart Hall explain that certain cultural codes are so widely circulated and integrated in to the main stream media that they can be seen as ‘naturalized’. These codes are most likely to be received in ways which closely resemble the meanings put forward by the encoder. He says that majority of people decode culture meanings by producing ‘negotiated’ readings which are a product of their own experiences and local culture.

 

CIRCUIT OF CULTURE – STUART HALL

Stuart Hall and Hoggart founded the University of Birmingham Center for Contemporary Cultural Studies in 1963-64. They developed a variety fo critical approaches for analysis, interpretation and criticism of Cultural Studies. They focused on the interplay of representations and ideologies of class, gender, race, ethnicity and nationality in cultural texts, including media culture. They were among the first to study the effects of newspapers, radio, television, films, and other popular cultural forms on audiences. They also focused on how various audiences interpreted and used media culture in different ways.

In his research work, Stuart Hall has analyzed culture as a continuous circuit that is made up of ‘production – distribution – production’. According to him, we need to analyze how media audiences produce messages, how they circulate the messages, and how the audiences use or decode the messages to create meaning.

He analyzed the products and institutions of corporate culture with study of Sony Walkman. The launch of the Walkman by Sony was very carefully timed to coincide with the school holidays as it was mostly targeted towards the youth. Also production was done keeping in mind a reasonably priced product. Thus it was not very high priced and was marketed and advertised from this point of view. Mobile urban youth were represented using the product. Thus the product was linked to its target audience and enabled them to identify with it.

As seen in the above example, culture became a description of a particular way of life. It expressed certain meanings and values. there is a continuous process of cultural encoding and distribution. The way culture is produced, circulated and decoded by the audience is controlled by advertising, marketing and design. Through Circuit of Culture, we can study and analyze the meaning of cultural artefacts. It is important for us to focus on the representation of things as this affects our understanding of them and how they get shared with others.

Thus, we can see how media culture studies help us grasp the ways in which media culture is produced, circulated and distributed.

 

 

ACCULTURATION

 

Sociologist Kroeber describes Acculturation as follows: ‘Acculturation comprises those changes produced in a culture by the influence of another culture which results in the increased similarity of the two’.

It is a process in which members of one cultural group accept and adopt beliefs and behaviors of another group.

Absorption of one’s cultural group into another may be evidenced by changes in language preference, adoption of common norms and values, membership in common social groups and loss of separate political or ethnic identification.

The process of Acculturation tends to be slow and gradual. According to some sociologists, researchers and scholars, Acculturation is the strongest instrument of cultural change and transformation.

Two major types of acculturation are incorporation and directed change. They can be distinguished on the basis of the conditions under which cultural contact and change take place.

Characteristics of Acculturation

Acculturation is a social process. It helps us understand social change.

Acculturation is the impact of a dominant prestige loaded society, which influences backward people and vice versa.

Acculturation may result in the disappearance of the minority group and their culture completely.

 

VARIABLES

A variable is any entity that can take on different values. Anything that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because age can take different values for different people. Salary can be considered to be a variable, as different people earn different salaries.

Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical. The variable 'gender' consists of two text values: 'male' and 'female'. ‘Newspaper preference’ is also a variable. One person might prefer reading ‘The Times of India’ while another might like to read ‘DNA’.

Eg. In the research question : “Do highly-educated people read more number of newspapers than lesser-educated people?”, the two variables are Education level (which can take the value of either ‘Highly Educated’ or ‘Lesser Educated’) and ‘Number of newspapers read’.

In the above research, the number of newspapers you read depends on your education level. Therefore ‘number of newspapers’ is the dependent variable(DV). And ‘Education level’ is the independent variable(IV).

Similarly in the research question : Does ‘The Times of India’ give more coverage to entertainment news than ‘The Hindustan Times’, the two variables are Newspaper (which can be either ‘The Times of India’ or ‘The Hindustan Times’) and ‘The Coverage given to Entertainment News’.  The coverage given to the entertainment news may be more for ‘The Times of India’ and less for ‘The Hindustan Times’. Thus, the coverage to entertainment news depends on the Newspaper. Thus, ‘Coverage to Entertainment news’ and is the Dependent Variable(DV), and ‘Newspaper’ is the Independent Variable(IV).

\

Extraneous Variables :

Extraneous Variables are variables other than the Independent Variable that might affect the Dependent Variable.

Eg.  In the research question : “Do highly-educated people read more number of newspapers than lesser-educated people?”, The DV ‘Number of Newspapers read’ might also be dependent on the age, the nature, the intelligence of the person etc. However, the researcher may not be able to measure these variables, although they might influence the DV.

These variables, which can also affect the Dependent Variable, but cannot be controlled by the researcher are known as Extraneous Variables.

 

Control Variables

If the researcher does not want an Extraneous Variable to affect the Dependent Variable, he has to control it, and it becomes a Control Variable.

Usually, a variable is controlled by keeping its value constant. Eg. In the above research, if the researcher does not want the variable ‘Age’ to influence ‘Number of Newspapers read’, he can make sure that all subjects are of the same age. The only thing that will be differing will be their from person to person will be his Education level. The age of all the subjects will be the same, to make sure age does not influence the DV.

 

Two kinds of IVs

Attribute IV :  Attribute IVs are usually attributes of people. Eg. Age, Gender, Salary, etc. An Attribute IV is an IV which is beyond the control of a researcher and he cannot change it as per his will during the IV.

Eg. If the age of a person is 20, the researcher cannot change it to 30 or 40.

 

Active IV :  Active IVs can be changed or controlled by the researcher.

Eg. Anxiety level of a person, the researcher can make a person more anxious or less anxious.

Type of medicine administered in a medical experiment (which can be changed by the researcher) etc.

NEW MEDIA THEORY

New Media Theory has been formalized since the 1990s. New Media refers to content available on-demand through the Internet. This content is accessible on any digital device and usually contains interactive user feedback and creative participation.

Examples of new media include websites such as online newspapers, blogs, video games  and social media.

New Media is more interactive and creates a sense of personalized communication.

New Media makes us feel part of something bigger than ourselves. It creates high levels of interaction but not with individuals, with a device. Thus New Media encompasses the amalgamation of traditional media such as films, images, music, spoken and written word with the interactive power of the computer.

New Media thus takes us from Cyberspace to Cyber Culture. ‘Virtual communities’ established online transcend geographical boundaries. These global societies are self-defined networks which resemble what we do in real life. New Media has the ability to connect like-minded others worldwide.

Thus, technology drive – and therefore is the determining factor – in the process of globalization.

New Media enables social movements. Websites blogs and online videos are used to promote campaigns.

New Media changes continuously because it is constantly modified and redefined by interaction between users, emerging technologies, cultural changes, etc. New forms of new media are emerging like Web 2.0 tools, Facebook and YouTube.

SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY

 ‘The Libertarian Theory’ had according to Siebert, Schramm and Peterson become ‘antiquated, outdated and obsolete’. It had thrown up many questions and problems for which not ready-made solutions were available.

To prove these issues a private commission ‘Commission on Freedom of the Press’ was set up in the US in 1942. Its chairperson was Robert Hutchins, Chancellor of Chicago University. The panel was asked to examine areas and circumstances under which the press of the US is succeeding or failing; to discover where free expression is or is not limited, whether by government censorship pressure from readers or advertisers or the unwisdom of its proprietors or the timidity of its management’. In its report submitted in 1947 the panel said the press had a duty unto society and must keep in view the ‘goals and values of society’. Thus, we see that the seed of the Social Responsibility Theory is in the Hutchins Commission Report.

The report held the US press accountable for serving the interests of the powerful few and not acting as the voice of the common people. The report asked the media to stick to certain principles – ‘provide a full, truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context which gives them meaning’; ‘serve as a forum form the exchange of comment and criticism’, act as a common carrier for the public expression’ and paint a ‘representative picture of the constituent groups of society’.

The theory advocates self-regulation against government control as the means to uphold social responsibility; but it does not consider state control totally uncalled for accepting that some situation may necessitate its use. This would create an objective, informative and independent press that is interested in portraying reality for reality’s sake and not for commercial considerations.

Siebert et al write: ‘Social Responsibility Theory holds that the government must not merely allow freedom; it must actively promote it… When necessary, therefore, the government should act to protect the freedom of its citizens’.

The report advised media owners to consider their empires as public trusts and not just money-making private enterprises. It said ‘Inseparable from the right of the press to be free has been the right of the people to have a free press. But the public interest has advanced beyond that point; it is now the right of the people to have an adequate press’. The report also pointed out the media must behave with responsibility towards society as the reins of the press were in the hands of only a few influential people. It is said that power must be handles with care and caution.

LIBERTARIAN / FREE PRESS THEORY

The origins of this theory lie in the beliefs of eminent philosophers such as Lao Tze, John Locke, and writers, John Milton and John Stuart Mill.

Milton wrote in ‘Aeropagitica’ in 1644 ‘let truth and falsehood grapple’, recommending free expression. This idea was adopted by the French in 1789 when in their ‘Declaration of the Rights of Man’ they wrote, “Every citizen may speak, write and publish freely’.

The propounders of this theory believed that the press should be allowed to function independently. They advocated freedom of press because that meant championing property ownership rights. Thus, by supporting the idea of a free press, media owners were furthering their own interests. This theory did not set a limit to the freedom of press nor did it specify as to who actually should benefit from it – proprietor or journalists.

The theory has at its center the rights given to individuals as their birthright which include the right to freedom of expression. The development of printing technology especially the movable metal type in the seventeenth century enabled man to spread the written word far and wide at a much cheaper cost. This led to information reaching the common man who had until then been kept away from it by the prohibitive cost that was involved in duplicating documents. The theory exposed the cause of the public as against that of the state which prevented the masses from sharing views and beliefs. The proponents of this theory believed that ‘vox populi’ (voice of people) was superior to a government invoice or authority,

Libertarians advocated the press as the ‘fourth estate’ which as a ‘free marketplace of ideas’ where ideas could be sold or bough without anybody’s interference, not even that of society.

TRENDS IN MEDIA

Media has constantly been evolving over the years and this can be seen in our every day experiences.

For e.g. 

Vinyl was relaced by Cassettes.

Cassettes were replaced by CDs.

CDs were replaced by downloads.

Now streaming is replacing downloads!

1970’s – Compuserve – business oriented computer communication

1980’s – Compuserve – public domain – share files, access news and events, it offered true interaction. You could send a message to your friend via ‘email’. One could also join discussion forums.

AOL – America Online – Internet before internet.

1990’s – Internet Boom – classmates.com – virtual reunion

Sixdegrees.com – no person is separated by more that six degrees from another (spam filled memberships) – folded

2002 – social networking – Friendster, LinkedIn, My Space and Facebook.

2007 – Twitter, Google+

2010 – Rise of Mobile – Smartphones and tablets, photo and video sharing, snap chat and Instagram, etc.

2014 – Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality – Yelp / Google Ingress, Social media as a marketplace – Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, YouTube, and Google (all have introduced a ‘buy’ button).

And this continues to evolve 😊

The current trend in media is the blurring of distinctions between print and digital, video games and sports, wireless and fixed internet access, pay TV and OTT (Over-the-top).

From 2017 to approx 2022, virtual reality (VR) , Over the top (OTT) video, and internet advertising will be the fastest revenue generators as they are the most popular. 

The VR market has now transformed the entertainment industry and VR journalism is the new trend.

OTT video revenue for media is a fast growing revenue generator. For e.g. HBO Go, Hulu, Netflix, etc.

It is already noticed that streaming services, TV Companies and social networks are competing over both conventional sports and e-sports rights.

TV Companies, telecoms, tech companies, OTT operators and movie studios are competing to provide TV content.

Radio stations, Podcast companies and streaming services are competing to provide radio and podcast content.

Brands too are competing to create content to engage the same customers.

Thus, there is convergence of geographies, as well as, convergence of access. 

The move to 5G wireless networks will change broadband experience.

MEDIA AND DISCOURSE

 ‘Discourse’ is defined as ‘A spoken or written treatment of a subject, in which it is handled or discussed at length; a dissertation, treatise, homily, etc.’

The meaning of discourse has evolved over the years.

Today an example of discourse – Advertisements may portray luxury items a naturalized needs; this discourse there by reinforces a consumption-driven culture

Thus discourse is seen a ‘naturalizing’ social roles, an extension of our culture and ourselves.

Media Discourse

All media furthers some sort of discourse e.g. printed material, online blogs, radio and TV broadcasts.

Understand values – All media texts are constructed. Thus, they reflect social values and the views, attitudes and beliefs – of the people of the time.

Production context – When writing about a text, it is important to identify the production context. Who made the text? When was it created? For e.g. ‘Flintstones’ reflects the values of America in the 1960s and not social values of the Paleolithic Age!

Thus we need to understand that discourse refers to the creation of meaning through the interrelationship of texts, audiences and media organizations in society. A discourse is like an ongoing discussion about an idea or a social issue.

Social values are values, beliefs and attitudes held in a society. They can be dominant, emerging, oppositional or alternative.

You must have a clear understanding of when and where a text was produced in order to understand the social values it professes.

Language and Media

Language is a primary means of socialization.

It enables us interact with social, political and economic power structures.

It is the primary medium for the construction and transmission of knowledge ad for the spread of ideas.

Language and society are inseparable.

Apart from being the primary tool for communication, language helps establish peace and order in society by exercising authority and power. However, it can also destroy society when used inappropriately.

Media represents language related issues.

Media’s use of language is central to the constitution of what people think language is or ought to be like.

Individuals across the world are exposed to images and information irrespective distance. Thus, today there is a global flow of communication and information.

5 key elements that link language and media and take research in the field forward:

1.       Communication process is essentially linear; with the result that

2.       Audiences are passive receivers at the end of a chain of media influence

3.       Whose key function is the transmission of information

4.       In the performance of which the media work no differently from any other, face to face, source of representations while,

5.       Simultaneously (and paradoxically) adopting the rhetoric of public address.

According to the linear model, social influences are unidirectional.

Linear to Cyclic Communication

With the coming of television came Lasswells Theory of communication – ‘who says what in which channel to whom and with what effect’.

Sender -> message -> receiver

Hall then gave the Encoding and Decoding – cyclic model of communication

From Passive to Active Audiences: Interpretations – Different people and cultures analysed differently.

From Information Transmission to Ritual Communication – For e.g. Anthropology - Media can be analysed as generating occasions akin to ceremonies which hold us – producers and consumers of media meanings within a shared culture. E.g. Friendship Day

Live broadcasting of ‘historic’ events – e.g. Olympic Games, Royal Wedding (England), Funeral of  Mother Theresa, etc.

Global audiences can participate from wherever they are.

From “Just Talk” to Public Communication – Political talk – everyday talk. The speaker claims to speak the truth and invites listeners to share knowledge, to trust the speaker and join in a shared value system.

Today media provide open access, unconstrained conversation and consensus-seeking.

From addressing the Public to a Diversity of Rhetorical Forms – Media intends to inform and persuade – response of audience is conceived in terms of attitude change. Earlier larger audiences gathered at the same place at the same time to hear a discourse. Today that is not necessary.

Broadcast media uses the communicative style with informal conversation. (Today it is more interactive – you can tweet, comment, like, post, etc.)

Social Media is changing Language – E.g. Unfriend, selfie

Online platforms change fast. However, they have an impact on and influence the language in which we write. (formal writing has now become a combination of informal, personal communication)

New ways of communicating

-          Acronyms

-          Abbreviations

-          Neologisms

-          Emoticons

-          Limited no of characters

-          Hashtags

With social media we tend to share more personal information to an even larger audience.

Joseph Klapper's PHENOMENISTIC / REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Phenomenistic Theory - Theory that media are rarely the sole cause of effects and are relatively powerless when compared with other social factors. 

Joseph Klapper was an eminent scientist. According to him, 'Mass communication does not ordinarily serve as a necessary or sufficient cause of audience effects, but rather functions through a nexus of mediating factors'.

These mediating factors according to Klapper are - church, family, school, etc - which do not change media habits of people but only reinforce them.

According to Klapper, the media affect people strongly when mediating factors are not present.

Klapper believed that the mediating factors shaped an individuals personality traits, which were reinforced by media. He observed that if people were presented with the content that went against their beliefs, they were unlikely to pay any attention to it.

e.g. fairness cream / figure consciousness

The ads are not aimed at changing people's thinking but reinforcing what they already believe in.

According to Klapper, if media deals with new topics they can exercise greater influence on the audience, which hasn't cultivated any preconceived notions about them. 

In such situations, the media can influence the public, but only for a short period, which is as long as the issue does not become public knowledge. Once society is / becomes aware of the topic, mediating factors will take over and control it.

This theory was based on social science research carried out before 1960 when TV had not acquired the status of a mass media tool. 

COGNITIVE THEORY

The Cognitive Theory was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. Cognitive Theory attempts to understand / explain human behavior by understanding thought processes. This theory views people as active agents who both influence and are influenced by their environment. 

Children observed people around them behaving in a particular way and imitate the same behavior.

The assumption of Cognitive Theory is that thoughts are the primary determinants of emotions and behaviors. 

A major component of the theory is observational learning - the process of learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing others, then reproducing learned behaviors in order to maximize rewards.

Observational learning occurs through four processes:

1. Attentional Processes: Information that is selected for observation in the environment. People may select to imitate real life people or things they observe via media.

2. Retention Processes: Keeping in mind or memorizing the observed information so that it can be recalled and reconstructed later.

3. Production Processes:  What was observed and learnt can now be applied in appropriate situations. The observer may not replicate the exact observation but may modify their behavior as necessary.

4. Motivational Processes: Determines whether the observed behavior results in desired or averse outcomes. If the observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be motivated to reproduce it later. However if the observed behavior was punished, the observer will be less motivated to reproduce the behavior again. 

Self- Efficacy - When people see others around them succeed, it motivates them to achieve success too. Thus the theory becomes a source of motivation and inspiration.

Social programs that were produced for developing communities on issues such as literacy, family planning, and the status of women have been successful in bringing about positive social change, while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive theory to media.

For example, a television show in India was produced to raise women’s status and promote smaller families by embedding these ideas in the show. The show championed gender equality by including characters that positively modeled women’s equality. The show was popular and viewers understood the messages it modeled. These viewers learned that women should have equal rights, should have the freedom to choose how they live their lives, and be able to limit the size of their families. Thus, the cognitive theory has been utilized to make a positive impact through fictional media models.

PROPAGANDA MODEL

Propaganda is a mode of communication used to manipulate or influence the opinion of groups to support a cause or belief.

Propaganda is convert persuasion.

Mass media serve as a system of communicating messages to the public. Its function is to amuse, entertain and inform as well as inculcate values, beliefs and codes of behavior.

The Propaganda Model focuses on the inequality of wealth and power and its multilevel effects on mass media interests and choices. It studies how money and power are able to filter out the news - fit to print, marginalize dissent and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their messages across to the public.

Today Propaganda campaigns are used for promotion of war against drugs, the fight against cancer and educating young girls against sexual assault. Posters / websites / posts advertising the effectis of drug abuse, etc. are examples of modern propaganda. Propaganda is also used by political parties especially pre-elections. 

MARSHALL MCLUHAN - MEDIUM IS THE MASSAGE

Marshall McLuhan is known for coining the expressions the 'Medium is the Massage' and 'Global Village'. He is the author of the book 'Medium is the Massage'.

According to Marshall McLuhan, technologies - from clothes to the wheel and beyond - are the messages themselves, not the content of the medium.

According to Marshall McLuhan, modern audiences have formed current media to be soothing, enjoyable and relaxing. However, the pleasure we find in new media is deceiving, as the changes between society and technology are incongruent and perpetuate an 'age of anxiety'.

According to him, modern media are extensions of human senses. They expand our ability to perceive the world to an extent that would be impossible without media. These extensions of perception contribute to McLuhan's theory of Global Village which would bring humanity full circle. 

Additional Information

Herbert Marshall Mc Luhan was born on 21st July 1911 in Canada. He majored in English Literature. He got a teaching job at the University of Toronto where he came in contact with communication studies expert Harold Innis.

He wrote many books, which generated much debate. Literary critics were dissatisfied with him for associating himself with media studies and did not agree with his ideas and demanded their scientific verification. 

His first major publication, The Mechanical Bride was published in 1951 in which he explored the effects of advertising on society and culture. 

Mc Luhan gave us the concept of world as a global village. he believed that with the ever-evolving communication technology man would be able to overcome the barriers of time and distance and mankind would become one family. The internet has confirmed this belief. His critics said that his idea of global village was a proof of his being a romanticist who believed that the global village was a utopia where everything was hunky dory.

Marshall Mc Luhan coined three theories in relation to the effects of advertisement on society. They are: 

1. Objects of desire - Where women are portrayed as desirable objects to men, in order to sell products back to the same women.

2. Technological Extensions of the human body - where in technology is now being substituted for the human body for any type of work or action.

3. Dangers of technological extensions - This relates to how technology is dangerous and we know it. But because of its luxurious advantages, we choose to ignore it.

ADVERTISING IN MAGAZINES

a)       Reach High Value customers – Magazine readers are better educated and have a higher purchasing power. Thus, it is considered an influential medium to reach opinion leaders.

b)      Active medium and Communicates better – The active process of reading ensures focus on and understanding of the brand message. Thus, reader involvement in magazine advertising is more increasing awareness of the brand.

c)       Bonus impressions – On an average a magazine is viewed 1.7 times providing more impressions per ad than newspapers or TV.

d)      Pass along readers – Magazines are read not only by subscribers but by many others.

e)      Entire Brand Story – Magazines allow detailed communication of the entire brand story.

f)        Most informative medium – Magazines influence purchase behavior early in the decision-making process giving readers an idea of what to buy.

g)       Selective targeting – Magazines target areas of interest. There are magazines for everyone and thus it is recommended to use magazine advertising to reach your specific target audience.

h)      Brand Relevant Imagery – Magazine editorial enhances ads with brand relevant imagery, associations and a frame of reference that delivers greater reader receptivity to brand ads.

i)        Build Relationships – Magazines are the most personal of media, creating a private connection with individual readers.

j)        Lasting Message – Consumers clip and save magazine ads for future reference.

k)       Credible Message – Magazine ads are perceived to be highly credible, believable and trustworthy sources of information.

l)        Flexibility – Provide opportunity for inserts, supplements, advertorials and a variety of size and positioning options to meet advertisers’ creative needs.

m)    Media Multiplier Effect – While using other media to advertise – magazines help create a multiplier effect thus reinforcing the brand in the mind of the reader.

n)      Magazines Generate Response – After reading/seeing the ad, consumers are motivated to shop for and purchase products, call a number or get in touch with the retailer/ clip a coupon and exchange it for a discount, etc. This generates response.

o)      Increase your Sales – magazines create appeal which makes the consumer want to go out there and purchase the product.