CONCEPT OF ASHOKAS DHAMMA

ASHOKAS DHAMMA

After the Kalinga War, the greatest ideal and objective before Ashoka was the propagation of Dhamma for the fulfillment of which he worked relentlessly. The Dhamma as explained in Ashoka’s edicts is not a religion or religious system, but a ‘Moral Law’, ‘a common code of conduct’ or an ‘Ethical Order’, which is a common meeting ground of all religions.

Ashoka explaining what is dhamma, enumerates two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma: less evils or sins (ap ansinave) and many good deeds (bahu Kayane). He enumerates the Asinavas or sin, such as rage or fury, cruelty, anger, pride and envy, which are to be avoided and many good deeds (bahu kayane) - kindness, liberality, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity etc., - which are to be pursued vigourously. The two attributes constitute the ‘Doctrinal’ or negative and positive aspects of Ashokas dhamma.

The Code of Duties / Practical Dhamma

1. Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers and other respectful persons.

2. Respect towards teachers

3. Proper treatment towards ascetics, both Brahmanas and Sramanas, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances and companions.

4. Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged.

5. Abstention from killing of living beings.

6. Non injury to all living creatures.

7. Moderation in spending and saving.

8. Mildness in case of all living creatures.

9. Truthfulness

10. Purity of heart.

The Dhamma of Edicts is not merely a guide to action. It is distinguished by several characteristic doctrines and philosophical positions, bringing out the originality of Ashoka’s ideas of moral reform. Toleration was insisted on as an absolute duty in a multi religious country like India. Ashoka tried to instill moral law (Dhamma) as the governing principle and force in every sphere of life and to spiritualize politics and all human activities. The Dhamma thus presented in these Edicts is but another name for the moral or virtuous life and takes its stand upon the common meeting ground of all religions. It is not sectarian in any sense, but is completely cosmopolitan, capable of universal application and acceptance as essence of all religions. Thus, he laid the basis of a universal religion and was probably the first to do so in history.

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka considered the Dhamma Vijaya, the victory based on piety and morality, as the real victory. In Pillar Edict I, he sums up his intentions by saying that he wants the maintenance, governance, happiness and protection of the people to be regulated by Dhamma. He further stressed the paternal concept of monarchy ‘All men are my children, and just as I desire for my children that they obtain welfare and happiness, both in this world and the next, so do I desire the same for all men’.

Ashoka’s dhamma was intended to strengthen social solidarity or social relationships, whether between parents and children, elders and young friends or various ideological sects. It was included as an ethical concept related to the individual in the context of his society.

Measures for the propagation of Dhamma

Ashoka took a number of measures for the propagation of Dhamma throughout his Empire. He adopted the doctrines of Dhamma as a governing principle of his personal life and public policies. Some of the significant measures were:

1. Issue of Dhamma lipis and Dhamma stambhas respectively in the form of Rock and Pillar Edicts describing the attributes of Dhamma

2. Appointment of Dhamma mahamatras.

3. Dhamma – Yatras, royal tours for the propagation of Dhamma.

4. Dhamma-mangala public welfare activities in accordance with the spirit of Dhamma.

5. Preaching of Dhamma by regulations and persuasions.

6. Administrative measures suited to the principles of Dhamma.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES | ANCIENT INDIA

Assess the importance of archaeological sources for the study of social and economic history of India.

Sources are divided into archaeological and literary.

Archaeological sources include inscriptions, monuments, coins and other antiquities.

Literary sources include contemporary works written by court historians, autobiographies, surveys and accounts of the empire, court bulletins and newspapers, religious, literary and foreign accounts.

Archaeological sources

Archaeology derives its name from the Greek words, ‘archaious’ meaning ‘ancient’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘knowledge’. Archaeology means ‘the science of ancient things’ or ‘ a branch of knowledge dealing with the remains of ancient human activity’.

The late Rai Bahadur K. N. Dikshit aptly says that archaeology is a handmaid to history, and this handmaid is thoroughly faithful and can be relied upon to bear the torch correctly to the dim recesses of long forgotten passages of history.

As archaeology means the systematic study of antiquities and the weaving of the earliest history of nations and peoples from the remains of buildings, burial places, implements and monuments, belonging to periods of which we have few or no written records, its importance as a valuable source is great.

The archaeologists have brought to life a great number of inscriptions of antiquity which were recorded on rocks and pillars. However, these inscriptions could not be read due to the ignorance of the script in which these inscriptions were written. But the mystery was solved by James Princep in 1837, by his discovery of the Brahmi script. Princep’s discovery inaugurated a new age in the research of India’s great historical antiquity. A number of scholars like Ferguson, Cunningham, Dr. Bhau Daji and Dr. Rajendra Lal Mitra made great contributions to the understanding of different branches of Indology.

Extensive excavations were carried out laying bare the remains of two great cities of what is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Culture, the first urban civilization of the Indo-Pak subcontinent. The find of a few seals of this civilization at some sites in Iraq helped in dating the civilization to the later centuries of the third millennium B.C. The discoveries evoked great interest and extensive explorations were undertaken in Sind and Baluchistan. Many other sites of the Harappa Culture, together with other proto-historic sites, variously contemporary with or earlier or later than the Harappa were discovered.

Archaeological material which can be used for the reconstruction of history may be broadly classified under the following heads: inscriptions, numismatics and monuments.

Inscriptions – Ancient people used to inscribe writings on tombs, temples, stupas, palaces, houses, walls, rocks, slabs, bricks, earthenware pots, plates, precious and semi precious stones, sculptures, metals, metallic objects, etc.

The historians of ancient India attach highest value to inscriptions as they are the most important to the studies auxiliary to literature. They are authentic as most of them are engraved on stone and metal and are thus free from the process of tampering to which books or other documents written on perishable materials are liable. Although not always dated, the character of the script enables us to determine their approximate age. Thus we can be sure while using the material from inscriptions that they contain what was originally written. While in the case of books, there is a possibility of interpolations by known and unknown authors, that is not the case with the inscriptions. Their genuineness cannot be doubted.  

By analysing the contents of the inscriptions, they can be grouped under the following heads: commercial, magical, religious and didactic, administrative, eulogistic, votive, or dedicative, donative, commemorative and literary.

Commercial inscriptions – As regards commercial inscriptions, their specimens are to be found on the seals of the Indus Valley. Some of these seals must have been used for the stamping of bales of merchandise, commodities like pottery, etc. These seals may have been used by sea-faring people engaged in foreign trade. It seems that Nigamas and Srenis, which were commercial organisations had the power of minting their coins and they must have possessed seals to be used for commercial purposes. Their record on perishable materials must have disappeared. However, there are references to the use of seals for commercial purposes in other inscriptions such as the Mandasore stone inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman.

Magical inscriptions – Examples of magical inscriptions are found in the Indus Valley Seals which were used as amulets. These seals contained magical formulae on them. The seals have not been deciphered as yet and it is difficult to know their contents. However, they are very likely to contain the names of deities which are represented by the animals. The animals represented on the amulets are the antelope, buffalo, Brahmi Bull, composite animal, elephant, goat, hare, human figure, monkey, rhinoceros, short horned bull and tiger. Some of the deities represented by them are the moon, Yama, Siva, Indra, Brahma and Durga.

Religious and didactic inscriptions – Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters. Possibly, some of the Indus Valley seals and tablets were objects of worship and were not used as amulets. The inscriptions of Ashoka are the best examples of the religious and didactic inscriptions. The edicts of Ashoka are appropriately called Dhamma-Lipi.

Administrative inscriptions – The inscriptions of Ashoka, engraved on rocks and pillars were found throughout his vast empire, from beyond the Indus int eh West to the Mysore Plateau in the South. These are royal proclamations and commandments mostly in his own words, and convey across 22 centuries the life and personality fo a great man and a great ruler with a striking vividness to which there is hardly any parallel  in the history of the world. The inscriptions of Ashoka form a class by themselves and contribute largely to our knowledge of the history of the period.

Eulogistic inscriptions – From the political point of view the eulogistic inscriptions (prasatis) are very important. Generally, they contain the name and genealogy of the ruler concerned. They also include the earlier career of the King, his military, political and administrative achievements, the existence of contemporary states coming into conflict with him and the inter state relations, the administrative system, the political ideals, the personal accomplishments of the king, his patronage, munificence and charity and mythological or puranic allusions by way of comparison and similes. One of the difficulties in these inscriptions is that there is a tendency on the part of the authors to exaggerate the achievements of their patrons.

Eulogistic inscriptions can be subdivided into two part – pure eulogy and eulogy mixed with other types. The edicts of Ashoka form a category by themselves. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga belongs to the category of pure eulogy. It describes in detail the achievements of King Kharavela in a chronological order. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta describes in great detail the personal qualities and military achievements of the great Gupta emperor and forms the chief document of his memorable reign. The Gwalior Prasasti of King Bhoja similarly throws light on the imperial Pratiharas, another forgotten dynasty of ancient India.

The number of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed with other matter is very large. In practically every document of a permanent nature, reference is made to the glories of the ruling sovereign and his ancestors.

Votive or dedicative inscriptions – There are a large number of votive or dedicative inscriptions. It is possible that some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley contain votive inscriptions. Many of the dedicative inscriptions deal with the installation of images and the construction of temples.

Donative inscriptions – There are many donative inscriptions. Some such inscriptions refer to the donations of caves or other buildings for the residence of monks and ascetics. Some refer to the donation of money in the form of a permanent endowment. Out of these funds, the Brahamanas and the needy were fed, lamps were lighted in the temples, etc. In some inscriptions, there is a reference to the donation of lands and villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and the Brahmanas.

Commemorative inscriptions – Inscriptions of commemorative nature record such events as birth, death or other important events.

Literary inscriptions – A number of inscriptions have proved to be of great value for the reconstruction of the literary history of India. They help to determine the date of the poets and to trace the development of literature.

Inscriptions are found engraved on all sorts of material, but more commonly on metals and stones. Among the metals, copper was the material which was commonly used for the writing of inscriptions. An inscription copper plated was called Tamrapata, Tamrapatta, Tamrassana, Sasanapattra or Danapattra according to its contents. It is remarkable to note that land grants were invariably inscribed on copper plates and were handed over to the donee so that they may serve as title deeds. Fa-Hein tells us that he found in many Buddhist monasteries copper plates which referred to the grants of land. Some of them were as old as the time of Buddha.  

Copper plates were of different sizes and thickness. Some of them were so thin that they could be bent easily and there were others which were very thick and heavy. The size of a copper plate depended upon the contents of the document and the size of the commonly used writing material in the area where the copper plate was used.

Besides copper, instances of inscriptions on gold leaf or silver scrolls are known. Bronze and brass are more in evidence in the shape of plates, images and utensils. Iron was also used as material for inscriptions but on a modest scale. An important example is the famous iron pillar at Meharauli near Delhi.

The stone inscription include rock – surface, walls of artificial or natural caves, pavements, pillars, slabs, statutes and reliquaries. Besides, bricks, earthenware, clay tablets, terracotta plaques, wood, shells, crystal and even ivory were used as materials for inscriptions.

The various inscriptions are found in the languages current at different periods and localities – Sanskrit, Pali, mixed dialects, or the languages of Southern India such as Tamil, Telugu, Malayam and Kannada. Some of them are of considerable literary merit, being either in prose or verse or a combination of the two. The majority of the inscriptions are in the Bramhi script, written from left to right. But a good number are also inscribed in the Kharosti script running like Arabic and Persian, from right to left.

Numismatics

The importance of numismatics for the study of political, religious and economic history of India is very great. Coins help us to build up the history of the country in many ways. They give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In many cases, the coins are the only information we have regarding the existence of certain kings. Without those coins, the very existence of those kings would have remained unknown. Many a times, the information from the coins can be used to corroborate the evidence from other sources such as the Puranas, etc. The coins also help us to fix up the chronology. The location of coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of the king. The discovery of a large number of roman coins in India confirms the fact that there was a brisk trade between India and the Roman Empire. That also refers to the economic prosperity of India.

Gold was probably used as money during and before the time of Buddha but no gold coins have been found. The earliest coinage of India so far known are in silver and copper. They are called punch marked and cast coins because of the techniques employed in making them. They are uninscribed and therefore it is difficult to identify the names of their issuers. Punch marked coins are metallic pieces, more or less rectangular in shape, with symbols punched thereon. The cast coins, usually of copper and used along with the punch marked currency, were made from moulds.

After the Greek invasion of India, the practice of writing the names of the Kings on the coins was started.

The coins have also been a chief source of our information regarding the various Indian states, both monarchial and republics that flourished during the same period. Coins are good materials for our knowledge of constitutional and administrative history of ancient India. Coinage is also an important source of art history and iconography. Early Indian coins that contain either a combination of symbols or human or animal figures and symbols, often present the earliest form of a particular deity.

The issue of coins is naturally associated with the country’s economy. Accordingly, the role of coins in the reconstruction of economic history is obvious. The earliest of the punch marked coins are usually dated around fifth century B.C. These types of punch marked coins which were found in abundance over the whole of the Indo – Pakistan subcontinent are believed to have been issued by the Mauryas. They must have controlled trade routes converging in Afghanistan and commanded a favorable foreign trade. The import of big quantities of Roman gold into India and favorable trade balance led to the issue of gold coins by the Kushanas and later by the Guptas. Pliny’s lament on the drainage of Roman gold to India was well founded.

The legend the effigy on the coins aid the historian to reconstruct the religious history of the period. They serve as additional testimony to the evidence we get from the inscriptions.

Monuments

In addition to inscripitons and numismatics, monuments such as buildings or parts there of, statues of stone or metal, terracotta, ornamental and decorative fragments, pottery and various other objects of a miscellaneous character are of great importance in tracing the history and evolution of Indian art. In addition to individual monuments, sometimes we have the vast remains of an ancient city laid before us. Some of them, like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, have opened before us an altogether new type of civilization, reaching back to an age of which no memorial in India were known before.

Expert examination of buildings, monuments and works of art has greatly enriched our knowledge of Indo-Aryan culture. Stupas, temples and other religious buildings help us to trace the development of religious thought.

In India, numerous buildings, buddhist, Jain, brahamanical and secular offer a fascinating study. They are rich store houses of information for the story of Indina religion, art and society. The digging of the old sites of Pataliputra gives us some information regarding the old capital of the Mauryas. The excavation of Taxila throw light on the History of the Kushanas. A study of the sculptures found they give us an idea of the Gandhara School of Art. The excavations at Sarnath have added to our knowledge regarding Buddhism and Ashok. The excavations in Chinese, Turkestan and Baluchistan by Stein prove the close contacts of India with those countries.

It is a commonplace knowledge that the art of a country reflects to a fair extent its culture and thus provides a key to the proper understanding of some higher aspects of its civilization. The sculptural panels sometimes enable us to know something of the social life of the community.

 

 

 

 

LITERARY SOURCES | ANCIENT INDIA

How do indigenous literary sources help in the study of social and economic history of ancient India? Illustrate with examples.

Examine the literary sources for the study of socio-economic history of ancient India.

Discuss the importance of literary sources in the study of the social and economic history of ancient India.

Critically examine the importance of foreign literary sources for the study of the social and economic history of ancient India.

 

Sources are divided into archaeological and literary sources.

Archaeological sources include inscriptions, monuments, coins and other antiquitites.

Literary sources include contemporary works written by court historians, autobiographies, surveys and accounts of the empire, court bulletins and newspapers, religious, literary and foreign accounts.

The earliest literature of India is purely of a religious kind. However, the scholars through their patience and hardwork could succeed in extraction from it useful bits of historical information. As regards the sacred literature, reference may be made to the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaved. Out of the four vedas, the Rigveda is the most ancient and gives a lot of information regarding the history and the political system of the Aryans. It also gives us historical information relating to the progress of the Aryans in India their internal divisions and wars with the ‘Dasyas’. The Brahmanas are a prose commentary on the Sahitas or the Vedic hymns. The Aryankas and the Upanishads contain the philosophical meditations of the learned sages on god, the soul and the world. They give us a picture of the religious thought of the Aryans. Besides there are six vegangas which were intended to help the understanding of the Vedic text. In course of time special schools of thought came into existence for a systematic study of the various branches of Vedic knowledge. Those schools evolved special texts of their own known as Sutras. The Kalpasutras are manuals on rituals and there are four divisions of them. The Srautasutras deal with the rules relating to big sacrifices. The Grihyasutras deal with rules relating to domestic rights. The Dharmasutras deal with Dharma or Law. The Sulvasutras deal with the measurement and the building of places of sacrifice and fire altars.

The two great epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata are the most famous books in Sanskrit next to the vedas. These epics contain what we may call the rudiments of history. Even the greatest critics do not deny the fact that the stories told in the epics may be magnified echoes of some historical events. The epics throw light on the political and social conditions of the people in their times. The Aryans had developed by then a large number of small kingdom along the banks of the Gangas and the Jamuna and their tributaries. The Aryans were warlike and were constantly forming alliances and waging wars. Though the power of the king was growing, big empires had not yet come into existence.

The Brahmasastras like the Smritis of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Brihaspati, Narada and others, also give us a lot of information about the Hindu society. They lay down the rules according to which the Hindus were required to conduct their lives. Punishments were also provided for the breach of those rules. According to Dr. Buhler the Manusmriti was composed between 200 BC and 200 AD. The other Smritis must have been written after that period.

The traditions preserved in ancient Indian literature notably the Puranas form the main source of information for the history of the earliest period and for the period before the 6^th century BC, they constitute our only source. According to Dr. Winternitz, the Puranas are valuable to the historians as a source of political history on account of their genealogies, even though they can only be used with great caution and careful discrimination. The Puranas, 18 in number, which are said to have been recited by the ’Suta’ Lomahsana or his son (Sauti), Ugrasravas. These Puranas throw light on all aspects and phrases of Hinduism.

The Poet Bana knew the Puranas very well and mentions that he attended a reading of the Vayu Purana in his native village. Kumarila Bhatla relies on the Puranas as a source of law. Shankara and Ramanuja referred to the Puranas as ancient and sacred texts. Al-Beruni was familiar with the Puranas came into being as early as the first century of the Christian era. There is a resemblance between the Buddhist Mahayana texts of the first century of the Christian era and the Puranas. All of the 18 Puranas are not equally important for historical purposes. As source material for History we depend largely on the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Bramha Purana and Bhavishya Purana. Dr. V. A. Smith has shown that the Vishnu Purana is very reliable as regards to the Andhra and Saisunga dynasties. The Vayu Purana describes the rule of Guptas as it was under Chandragupta I.

The Puranas help us in rebuilding the History of Ancient Indian geography in which we come across the names of a number of cities which existed in their times. According to N. Mukhopadhyaya the Puranas form an important portion of the religious literature of the Hindus, and together with the Dharmashastras and Tantras, govern their conduct and regulate their religious observance at the present day. According tot Pradhan, ‘the puranas profess to give us the ancient history of India. In doing so they begin form the earliest Rigvedic period describing genealogies of Kings who established kingdoms and principalities and thus parcelled out and ruled ancient India’.

Inspite of their utility in reconstructing the history of ancient India, the Puranas contain certain serous shortcomings. History is mixed up with fables and folk lore. The legends int eh Puranas are religious and not historical. They sometimes treat contemporaneous dynasties or rulers as successive, or omit some of them entirely. The Puranas are silent about the Kushanas, Indo Greeks, Indo Parthians, etc. Dr. Altekar points out that in the dynastic lists, the Puranas themselves do not say that each successor in the list was a son or relative of his predecessor. No dates are given and even names of kings are often inaccurate.

The Buddhist Literature give a lot of information regarding the period which immediately preceded the accession of Bimbisara. It throws light on many topics which are not dealt with by the Brahmanical writers. The Buddhist literature is found in two languages – Pali and Sanskrit. The Pali Buddhist Literature is divided into three Pitakas – The Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka and the Abhidamma Pitaka. Besides the religious literature of the Buddhists, there is a mass of non religious literature. The most important among these is the ‘Milinda Panha’ (Questions of King Milinda). It is names after the Greek King Menander. It discusses a number of questions and disputed points of Buddhism. The ‘Dipavamsa’ and ‘Mahavamsa’ are the chronicles of Ceylon. The ‘Lalitavistara’ and ‘Vaipulya Sutras’ are important works in Sanskrit dealing with Buddhism. The Lalitavistara contains the story of the life of Buddha. The Vaipulya Sutras deal with Buddhist doctrines in 9 books.

The Jatakas deal with the previous births of Buddha. According to the Buddhists, Gautama Buddha had to pass through a series of births before he was born as a Sakya Prince and got enlightenment. About 549 Jataka stories have been collected and published. The Jatakas are of unique importance as they represent the entire life and thought of their age. They give us supplementary information which help us to check up information available from Brahmanical works. The Jatakas throw light on the political, social, economic and religious condition of the people. The Jatakas have been assigned to the 2^nd or 3^rd century BC. According to Dr. Winternitz, ‘the Jatakas were of inestimable value, not only as regards literature and art, but also from the point of view of the history of civilization for the period of the third century BC.

Jain literature also contains a lot of historical information. Prof. Jacobi and Dr. Banarasi Das have done a lot of work on Jain literature.

Several literary and other secular works supplement our knowledge of ancient India. The Mudraakshas of Visaka Data gives the story of Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya. It explains how the Nandas were overthrown and Chandragupta became the King of Magadha. The Arthashastra of Kautilya (Chanakya) contains a lot of information regarding the system of administration. It also gives an idea of the social and religious life of the people.

Patanjali’s Mahabhasya and Panini’s ‘Ashtahyayi’ are works of Sanskrit grammar, but there are occasional references to Kings, republics and other political events.

Certain writers brought out their literary works based on the lives of their royal patrons:

Banabhatta, the great master of Sanskrit prose, wrote ‘Harsha-Charita’ – the life of Emperor Harsha.

Two poets Vakpati and Bhilana, described the exploits of Yashovarman and Vikramaditya of the later Chalukya dynasty in two epic poems, the ‘Gaudavalsa’ and the ‘Vikramankadeva Charit’.

We also have a curious poetical work the ‘Rama Chatia’ in which the author uses throughout verses of double entendre, which taken one way describes the story of Ramayana and taken the other way describes the story of King Ramapala of Bengal. The other biographical works are ‘Kumarapala Charita’ of Jayasimha, ‘Kumarapala Charita’ of Hemchandra, Hammira Kavya of Naya Chandra, Navasashanka Charita of Padmagupta, Bhojaprabandha of Ballal, Prithvirajavijay by an anonymous writer, and Prithviraja Charita by Chand Bardai.

The various dramas written during this period also throw light on the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural aspects of ancient India.  The dramas of Kalidasa, such as ‘Shakuntala’ give useful information about the social life of the people. The two dramas of Bhasa known as ‘Svapnavasavadatta’ and ‘Pratijna Yaugandharanya’, give us interesting information about the political conditions of India in the time of King Pradyota of Ujjain. The three dramatic works ascribed to Harsha throw interesting light on the history of seventh century AD. Those plays are the ‘Nagananda’, the ‘Ratnavali’ and the ‘Priyadarsika’.

In Rajatarangini, Kalhana narrates the career of each King in chronological order. He gives a fair amount of detail, showing scrupulous impartiality in his criticism of men and events. Thus, he exhibits soundness of judgment and healthy liberality in his general expression of views. Gradually approaching nearer to his own age, Kalhana’s history becomes fuller and more filled with interesting accounts of men and things. It ceases to be merely a chronicle of dry details and faithfully presents the ebb and flow of national life, the periods of glory and misery and the greatness and weakness of men and rulers. Thus, Kalhana presents in his Rajatarangini all those minute details which make history a record of intense human interest, faithfully portraying the march of events through which a people works out its own destiny.

Kalhana’s Rajatarangini not only gives the History of Kashmir in a chronological order but also reflects Kalhana’s views on what he considered to be good government. According to Kalhana, the King should be strong rigidly controlling his underlings but benevolent towards his subjects and sympathetic towards their wishes. He should choose his advisors wisely and listen to their advice. At many places Kalhana has expressed his disapproval of the Damaras, the petty feudal chiefs who had reduced Kashmir to anarchy and misery. Kalhana was strongly opposed to bureaucracy.

As regards local history, references may be made to a large number of chronicles of Gujarat. These include well known works like Rasmala, Kirtikaumudi of Somesvara, Sukritasamkirtana of Arisimha, Prabandhachintamani by Mertunga, Parbandhakosa by Rajasekhara, Hammiramdamardana of Jayasimha, Sukritakirtikallolini of Udayaprabha, Vasantavilasa of Balachandra and others. These are treasure houses of stories and fables as well as historical anecdotes. The two biographies of Kumarapala and these chronicles enable us to trace the history of Gujarat, especially under the Chalukyas.

There are also local chronicles of Nepal, which merely contain a list of kings and the duration of their reigns, with only a few details here and there. The earlier portion of these Vamavalis, as they are called, is purely mythical, but there seems to be an historical basis for the accounts relating to the period commencing from the first century AD.

In the Dravidian language there are many historical references to the political history of India from the second century AD onwards. The Tamil Sangam works of the second and third centuries, gives us useful information about the South Indian civilization. In Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam there are many poems which give us useful information about the history of South India.

Foreign Sources

The accounts of any country and its people by foreign observers are of great interest to the historian of the country for they enable him to know what impression it made upon the mind of such observers and to estimate with greater confidence the part played by it in the general history of the world.

For the proper study of ancient Indian History, Greek sources are greatly important. India was known to the Greeks even before Alexanders invasion. But it is very unfortunate that most of this evidence is available to us only in fragments.

The first to write a book on India was Scylax, whom Darius sent in about 517 BC on a voyage of exploration to find out the course of the Indus. Next came the two great writers Herodotus and Clesias. Herodotus (484-406 BC) who, though much more exact, deals more with a great deal of fairy tales. However, he refers to the conquest of a small part of India by Darius and has also made some useful observations about the peoples of northwest borders of India. Clesias’ accounts are full of fables.

The historian who came in wake of Alexanders invasion are more exact than the previous writers. They are Nearchus, Onericritus, and above all the celebrated Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nikator, in the court of Sandracottes (Chandragupta Maurya). The work of Megasthenes ‘Indica’ extend only in fragments to quoted by other authors, contains some useful information about the people and social system of India. It is a comprehensive work on India, apparently divided into 4 books describing the country, its soil, climate, animals and plants, its government and religion, the manner of the people and their arts. Although the work of Megasthenes is both interesting and authentic, it cannot but be charged with serious defects and shortcomings. This may be due to the fact that he was a foreigner and failed to understand the language, the customs and manners of the people.

Among the Greek accounts a special reference may be made to the classical writers, who through their writings throw useful light on the Geography and natural history of India. The earliest of them is the anonymous author of the ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’. He was a Greek settled in Egypt, who made a voyage to the Indian coast about 80 AD, and left a record of its ports, harbors and merchandise. Ptolemy wrote a geographical account of India in the second century AD on scientific lines. Since he has derived most of his data from secondary sources, necessarily some errors have crept in but on the whole if gives some useful information. Pliny gave an account of the Indian animals plants and minerals in the first century AD. These classical accounts most of which have been translated into English were generally prompted by a spirit of exploration of unknown lands and reflect great credit on their authors and the scientific spirit of the age in which they lived.

The Chinese travellers who visited India in different periods of History have left their accounts about India which are of great help in reconstructing the ancient Indian History. From the beginning of the Christian era trade and cultural relations between Indian and China were of the most intimate kind and lasted for well over a thousand years. From about 400 AD onwards there was a regular stream of pious Chinese pilgrims pouring into India. Some of these were great scholars, who visited nearly the whole of the subcontinent and spent years in studying Indian learning at the famous universities of the age. About sixty pilgrims have left valuable records of their travels in India. Three of them, Fa Hein (fifth century AD), Hieun Tsang and It-sing (seventh century AD) are better known than others. They have recorded their experiences in fairly bulky volumes which are preserved in their original forms and have bee translated into English.

All three of them spent a number of years in India and learnt its language. Fa Hein and Hieun Tsang travelled widely almost all over the country. However, these eminent Chinese visitors were all devout Buddhist monks, whose journey to India was merely a pilgrimage to holy lands. Thus, their outlook was purely religious. Neither Fa Hein or ItSing refer to secular matters, except very incidentally nor do they mention the name of the King or Kings whose dominions were visited by them. However, Hieun Tsang gives some interesting information about his royal patron Harshavardhana and other contemporary kings of India. He also briefly refers to the political condition of the kingdoms through which he passed and devotes an entire chapter to a general account of India. Further the works of the Tibetan Lama Taranatha, the Dulva’ and some aspects of the ancient Indian History. The Chinese travellers through their writings have rendered great service by depicting the state of Buddhism in India.

The Arab travellers, geographers and historians were attracted by India from eight century AD. The early Arab writers deal with the country and its inhabitants rather than on history in the proper sense. Among early works, Kitab al Fihrist, a great biographical collection, the Kitab futuhal Boldan of Al Beladori, Dictionary of Countries by Al Kazwin are worthy of mention.

From nineth century onwards India figured prominently in Muslim chronicles. For instance, the Kitab al Yamini of Utbi covers the history upot 1022 AD. The best account of India was written by Abu Rihan, better knonw as Al-Beruni. His sphere includes the whole range of human sciences such as philosophy, mathematics, chronology, medicine, etc. His book Taukh al Hind is an erudite work throwing much light on ancient Indian culture. It is universally regarded as a comprehensive work on India ever written by a foreigner. Al Beruni was a man of versatile genius and a scholar of Sanskrit. He was a contemporary of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. While the ruthless conqueror was harrying India by fire and sword, destroying and plundering its cities and temples, the great Arabic scholar engaged himself in studying the culture and civilization of the country. However, form the point of view of Indian history Al Beruni’s great work suffers from two defects. In the first place, he says little or nothing of the political condition of India. Secondly, his account rests primarily on his study of Indian literature and is not based on personal observation. He gives an admirable survey of the mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, astrology, geography, philosophy, religious rites, customs, social ideas, etc., of India.

STATE IN ANCIENT INDIA | ECONOMIC FUNCTIONS - ANCIENT INDIA

STATE IN ANCIENT INDIA

Give an account of economic functions and social responsibilities of the state in Ancient India

Evaluate the role of the state in the ancient Indian economy

Short note on Economic functions of the Ancient Indian state

Shore note on role of state in economic life

Show how the ancient Indian state discharged its functions and responsibilities

 

State, in ancient India, had to play an important role in the administration and safe conduct of socio-economic affairs. The state itself took part in a number of activities demanding a close watch and control on sectors like trade, commerce, agriculture, handicrafts and labor problems.

Agriculture has been the chief occupation of India since early Vedic age. In the Pre Mauryan period agriculture was prescribed as the normal occupation of the Vaishya or the common man by the authors of the Dharmashastras. It was the task of the state to adopt a wise policy of encouragement and support to the cultivators of the soil.

Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ helps us to draw the outlines of the policy of government encouragement to agriculture. Kautilya gives references relating to the law of agricultural holding (vastu). The Vastu or holding of the cultivator is defined as comprising tenements (griha), fields (kshetra), gardens (arama), embanked reservoirs (setubandha) as well as tanks (tataka) and other sources of water supply (adhara). The possession of vastu by the cultivator was safeguarded by a number of penal clauses. Thus, a forcible occupation of vastu is visited with the thief’s penalty. Robbery accompanied with violence in respect of fields, tenements and so forth was punished. Even the act of grazing cattle on another’s field without permission of the owner was punished with a fine.

From other clauses in the ‘Arthashastra’ we learn that the cultivators were entitled to the full rights of ownership, including those of sale, lease and gift over their holdings. Definite procedures were laid down for the sale of vastu, homestead lands, fields, gardens, irrigation works and of embanked reservoirs as well as for the lease of tenements, wells, tanks, rice fields and gardens. The transfers by gift of sale of fields within the rural area were required to be entered by the gopa in his field register of the village.

Choice of crop – In the choice of their crops, the cultivators were usually granted complete freedom. The only exception to this rule occurred in Kautilya’s program for lease of newly colonized lands to the cultivators and for raising extra revenue for the King in case of financial emergency. Neglect of cultivation was punished with cancellation of the lease. The ‘Samaharta’ (the chief revenue officer) was empowered to raise a second crop by the compulsory labor of the cultivators.

Encouragement of Agriculture – For the encouragement of agriculture the state adopted a number of measures. These consisted of the grant of agricultural loans and revenue remission to the cultivators and the construction of irrigation works by state agency or with state help. The loans as well as remissions were required to be entered by the gopa in his census of resident families of the villages. Revenue remissions were to be granted for five and three years respectively in favor of one constructing new and restoration of old or ownerless irrigation works. The interest of the cultivator was upheld by a clause of law exempting him from arrest for non payment of debt during the season of cultivation.

Agrarian Policy – According to Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’, the possession of land in the kingdom of Kosala carried with it the right of its disposal to buyers. The Dharmashastras contain clauses of law relating to the owners right over his tenants as well as to the lease holder’s obligation to the owner of the land. The field laborer’s obligations to serve his master was strictly enforced and a servant abandoning his work in tillage was to be flogged.

The Jatakas relate to the assignment of lands and villages by Kings. Such assignments were made in favor of members of the royal family, of Brahamanas, of officials as well as of private individuals of lower status. They appear to have been so well known that new technical terms were used to designate their different varieties. The assignees enjoyed the revenue of villages granted by the Kings probably in hereditary succession. We come across a class of ‘gramakhojakas’(village landlords) who exercised administrative and judicial powers by the king’s grant.

We learn from Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ that the general policy of state administration was to discourage, if not forbid, the assignment of lands. There is mention of acquisition of land by members of the royal family, which were required to be entered by the ‘akshapataladhyaksha’ in his state register of the kingdom. On the other hand, the whole royal establishment consisted of members of the King’s family as well as of the civil and military services who were paid salaries according to their respective grades.

There are references in the ‘Artharshastra’ that some minor officials and Brahmanas were granted assignments of fields in the newly colonized rural areas. But the officers enjoyed their assignments without right of sale or mortgage. The Brahmanas alone were granted permanent rent free occupation of their holdings. It was also a fact that villages liable to military service in lieu of revenue were known at that time. the list of such villages were required to be entered by the ‘samaharta’ in his revenue role of villages in the kingdom.

Functions of rural officers – Describing the functions of the rural officers in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, Megasthenes observes that they keep rivers improved and the land measured as in Egypt and inspect the closed canals from which the water is distributed into conducts in order that all may have an equal share. They collect taxes and superintend the crafts connected with land – those of woodcutters, carpenters, workers in brass and miners. From the description of the class of farmers by Megasthenes it appears that they were not only the most numerous, but the most highly respected class since they were exempted from military service and that they enjoyed the right of freedom in their farms.

Gupta Age – During the Gupta Period as well the state patronized agriculture. A concrete illustration of state care for agriculture is furnished by the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Emperor Skandagupta belonging to 445-58 of the Christian era. It records the restoration of the Sadarshana Lake at Girnar by the local governor of Skandagupta.

Industrial and commercial expansion – The first great age of industrial and commercial expansion in ancient Indian history can be traced to the pre Maurya period. The most complete development of the state policy in the industrial and commercial field during this period can be traced in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’. A double attitude of the state towards the artisans and traders is found in his work. Special care was taken for the encouragement of trade and industry, as they were recognized as state’s greatest assets. A strict control was maintained over industrial workers as well as over traders for protection of the public against various malpractices current at that time among these classes. This was accompanied by an equally strict control of marketing operation in the public interest.

The state undertook a number of measures for the encouragement and security of artisans and traders. These included the opening of trade routes and the foundation of trade marts within the rural area and the settlement of artisans and dealers at specific sites of the metropolitan city. The king was directed to protect trade routes against various obstacles and danger. In the same spirit the ‘navahyaksha’ was required to treat with fatherly kindness boats that were strayed from their routes or damaged by bad weather. In particular, he was required to levy the custom duties at half their usual rates or even to remit them altogether on goods damaged by water. He was also required to destroy pirate boats. More important were the special laws laid down for protection of the property of the artisans and traders.

Punishment – The Arthashastra refers to the punishment for the theft of articles of small and high value belonging to artisans and traders. A number of police regulations were prescribed for making various officers personally responsible for the security of the merchants’ goods in course of transit within their respective jurisdictions. A number of rural officers such as the village headman, the officer in charge of pastures, the officer in charge of five or ten villages and the officer empowered to arrest thieves were required according to the distance to which the stolen articles have been carried to make good the value of their merchandise they were deprived of by a theft committed in the night.

The state took appropriate measures to control the artisans and traders for the purpose of ensuring honest dealings with the public. The dishonest practices of these classes, it appears, had become so notorious as to induce the moralists of this age to condemn them to punishment in hell after death. Kautilya’s measures form the subject matter of a chapter dealing with the subject of public enemies. A number of administrative regulations were directed against specific trades and professions branded as comprising men who are really thieves though passing as honest men. The measures comprised, firstly, the appointment of special benches of three magistrates (pradeshtas) for enforcement of law and regulations. Secondly, specification of the terms and conditions of work of the classes concerned along with penalties for their violations. Thirdly, fixing the rates of their remuneration and fourthly, an inquisitorial control over those classes.

There are references in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ regarding the state control over marketing operations. There were entrusted partly to the ‘sulkadhyaksha’ (officer in charge of the city custom house) and partly to the officer called pandyadhyaksha (officer in charge of merchandise) and samstahadyaksha (officer charged with control of stocks of dealers).

The ‘sulkadhyaksha’ had to collect custom duty on imported merchandise within the city limits and to arrange for its public sale at a fixed price. The ‘sulka’ had to be paid sometimes in cash and sometimes in kind according to the local usage. The rules in the Smrities suggest that the payment was usually in kind. Sometimes we come across inscriptions stating the actual quality of ghee, oil, cotton, betel leaves, etc., that was collected as customs duties in different places. Cash collections also were not unknown and they must have been usual in the case of imports of gold, silver and jewels.

Custom duties – Custom duties varied according to the commodities as in modern times. Manu recommends a 16% duty on fuel, meat, honey, ghee, scents, medicines, flowers, vegetables, earthen pots and leather goods. The ‘Arthashastra’ however, recommends a lighter tariff of four to five percent on medicines, fuel, leather goods and earthen pots. However, wines and silken pieces were charged a higher duty varying from 6 ½ to 10 %. It is clear that the tariff derived from province to province and age to age according to the needs of policy of different governments. Kautilya recommends that commodities intended for religious ceremonies and sanskaras like sacrifices, marriages, etc., as also presents given to the bride, should be exempted from the custom duties.

Ferry tax and shop tax – Along with eh customs duty, the ferry tax had to be paid for passengers, goods, cattle and carts. Besides some states used to test and stamp weights and measures and charge a small fee for the same. A shop tax is referred to in inscriptions. The 10% tax on sale proceeds referred to by Megasthenes is unknown to the ‘Arthashastra’ or the Smrities. Most probably the Greek ambassador confounded the customs dues with the sales tax.

The ‘panyadhyaksha’ was charged with the double function of controlling the home market for consumption of indigenous and imported goods and exploring the foreign market for pushing the sale of indigenous merchandise. In so far the home market was concerned this policy was designed to protect the public against unfair dealings by traders, while allowing the latter specific concessions. As for the foreign market the ‘panyadhaksha’ was expected to offer friendly advice and warning to the merchants engaged in export trade.

The ‘Samsthdhyakshas’ functions described appropriately enough under the caption ‘suppression of public enemies’ (literally, eradication of thorns from rural and urban areas) related principally to the protection of the public against the various malpractices of dealers.

The state collected various taxes and dues from the industry. As far as petty artisans like smiths and carpenters were concerned, it appears that they were usually required to work one or two days a month for the state. The central government usually transferred the right to receive the labor tax to the local bodies which could utilize it in carrying out their schemes of works of public utility. Inscriptions refer to this tax as ‘karukara’, the tax on artisans.

Trade in wine – Trade in wine was under strict state control. It was manufactured partly in state distilleries and partly by private agency. The wine prepared by the latter had to pay an excise duty of 5%.

Mines – All mines were regarded as state property. Some of them were worked by the government, but others were often leased out as well. When such was a case, the lease had to pay a heavy excise duty. According to Sukra it was to be a 50% in the case of gold and diamonds, 33 ½ in the case of silver and copper and 16-25% in the case of other metals.

Salt – Excise duty was levied on salt. Salt deposits could be worked only by the state or its licensees. Copper plate grants donating villages usually invest the donee with the right to dig for salt and metals without the payment of any fee.

Calamities – Apart from the usual taxation, the state was naturally empowered to levy extra cesses to meet unforeseen calamities, or to finance costly works of public utility, or to carry out its plans of ambitious expansion. The Arthashastra describes these extra contributions as ‘prayanas’ or benevolences and lays down that the farmers may be called upon to pay about 25 and merchants from 5 to 50 % according to their circumstances.

According to the description of Megasthenese, the ‘astynomoi’ (the city commissioner or the magistrates in charge of cities) in the time of Chandragupta Maurya were divided into seven boards of which three are mentioned here.

The first board had to look after arts and handicrafts, the fourth board was in charge of sales and barter and had to look after ‘measures and the fruits of the season’ so that the latter might be sold by stamp. The fifth board had the charge of the work done by artisans. According to the parallel account of Kautilya we find that the control of artisans and traders in urban as well as in rural areas by means of elaborate laws and regulations was entrusted to benches of three ‘pradeshtas’ for the purpose of protection of the public against the malpractices of the artisans and traders.

Promotion of trade: The state took keen interest in promoting trade. The first known reference in the ancient history of India to the construction and maintenance of trade routes by the state is found in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’. The trade routes were looked upon as an asset of the state. It is said that the possession of land and water routes counted among the characteristics of a good ‘janapada’. Kautilya mentions about a few concrete steps to be taken by the state in pursuance of this aim. The construction and security of trade routes was associated with the foundation of villages in Kautilya’s program of development of the wastelands. In another place Kautilya mentions about the foreign policy aimed at the possession of trade routes. By the time of Chandragupta Maurya, as we learn from Megasthenes, a great royal road had been built for linking Pushkaravati, beyond the Indus river, with Pataliputra the imperial capital. The Mauryan rulers took extreme care for the improvement of transport and communication. From the observation of Megasthenes we learn that the rural officials were required to mark roads with pillars at every ten stadia to show the distances.

Loans – One aspect of development of economy during the pre-Mauryan age is the extensive use of agricultural, industrial and commercial loans to which the records of this period bear witness. This led for the first time in India’s history to state regulations for fixing the legal rate of interest in general and on a graduated scale. The legal rate was made sufficiently elastic to allow the increase of the prescribed rate or rates upto a fixed limit.

Capitalistic system: The capitalistic system of production was a well established institution during ancient times together with the age old domestic system.

Agricultural Production Standard: The standard of agricultural production was fully developed in the working of the state farms of which we have a detailed description in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’. We may trace this development firstly, in the technical qualification of the controlling staff, secondly, in the larger provision for agricultural labor and the appliances of cultivation, thirdly, in the application of the most advanced scientific agriculture of the time for sowing the seeds, fourthly, in the precise rules for the payment of wages of the laborers and lastly in the precise terms of the share of the crops allowed to the lease holders.

Domestication of animals: The first complete description of the state rearing of domestic animals is given by Kautilya. Draught animals were required for providing transport for civil and military purposes. In the layout of the metropolitan cities sites were set apart for stabling the cattle, horses, asses and camels belonging to the royal establishment. Two separate ‘adhyakshas’, functioned for the management of state herds. These were by ‘goadhyksha’, who was in charge not only of the cattle but also of camels, asses, goats and sheep belonging to the category of the state herds. The other was the ‘asradhyaksha’ who was in charge of the horses and mules.

Forests: Forests formed another important source of the state income. Kautilya includes forests as a separate item in his classification of sources of revenue. The economic products of the forest consisted according to Kautilya’s enumeration of the sub-types called the group producing hard wood, the bamboo group, the plant group, the group which produces ropemaking, paper manufacturing, dyeing materials and medicinal substances, the group which provides poisons, the remains of dead animals, base materials, bamboo and earthen ware.

Mines and minerals: Kautilya gives a vivid description of the state working of mines and minerals. A high officer in charge of mines (akardhyaksha) was entrusted with the overall control and supervision of all the relevant operations from start to finish, while other ‘adhyakshas’ with technical titles were required to deal with different branches of the mining industry and trade in minerals. The ‘akaradhyakha’ and his staff were required to have expert knowledge of the metallurgical sciences. They were entrusted with the discovery of disused mines. While the costly mines were leased out on a share or royalty basis, the rest were directly worked under his supervision according to the best technical process known at that time. The ‘akardhyaksha’ had to set up workshops for carrying out smelting and other operations according to the elaborate techniques described by Kautilya. Thereafter he had to arrange for marketing of the finished goods under strict official control. Living by the manufactured products with a state license was punished with compulsory labor at mines. Theft of mineral products was punished with eight times the value of the stolen article that of jewels being punished with death.

Textile Industry: The primary objective of the state textile factories was to produce fabrics for the needs of the civil and military administration. Rules for the working of the factories are laid down in the ‘Arthashastra’. Skilled male as well as female labor was employed for the operations of spinning and weaving. A special officer called ‘sutradhyaksha’ was incharge not only of spinning but also of the weaving operations.

Sale of state merchandise: The first known state trading, as of the state industries in ancient India occurs in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’. According to Kautilya’s description the ‘panyadhyaksha’ (officer incharge of merchandise) had the task of promoting the sale of the state merchandise to the best advantage of home and abroad. He was to have a thorough knowledge of current market conditions. In so far as the home market is concerned he was required to collect the merchandise in excess of supply at one place for realization of its proper price and later to lower the price.

Marketing: Marketing of state merchandise of local manufacture was centralized. The state merchandise was to be sold at a fixed price to licensed dealers who were to be fined for lowering the price apparently for the purpose of attracting a larger number of customers. As regards foreign market, the ‘panyadhayaksha’ was to consider the differences in price levels of the local and the imported merchandise and to make a series of calculations for estimating the margin of profit likely to accure from the sale.

Weights and balances: There was an elaborate system of weights of balances, liquid and linear measures and measures of time. attempts were made to a standardization in the advanced state of administration of time. a state factory was set up for the manufacture of weights and measures and a special officer called the pautavadhaksha’ was placed in charge of the same. The weights were to be manufactured out of iron, or stone belonging to a particular locality, or of wood of a particular texture, while wooden vessels of a particular design and material were to be prepared for liquid measures. The inspection of weights and measures was to be carried by the ‘pauravadhyaksha’ every four months. A series of balances was manufactured so as to give a maximum advantage to the state in the collection of its dues.

Regulation of Coinage: The first clear account of state regulation of coinage occurs in Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’. According to Kautilya, the coins were struck by state authority. The work was entrusted to a special officer called ‘Lakshanadhyaksha’. Both silver and copper coins were issued. The silver coins were known as ‘ruparupya’ and copper coins were known as ‘tamrarupys’. Reference is made in another context to the manufacture of gold as well as silver coins, named respectively as ‘suvarnas’ and ‘dharanas’. The mint regulations were sufficiently precise.

CENTERS OF HIGHER EDUCATION | NALANDA, VALABHI & KANCHI

Give an account of the centers of higher education with reference to Takshashila, Varanasi and Nalanda.

Write a note on Centers of Higher Education in India

Estimate the contribution of Nalanda, Valabhi and Kanchi towards higher education

Give a detailed account of the important centers of higher education during the period under review.

Give an account of centers of higher education with reference to Valabhi, Ujjain, Varanasi and Vikramashila.

 

Organized educational institutions originated during the Buddhist period. Buddhism was funded on Republican principles according to which ‘Dharma’ was preached to the masses in their own language. Therefore, educational institutions to teach Pali and Sanskrit for primary and higher education respectively were established. Buddha felt the need of institutions for the education of the ‘upasakas’ or sympathizers too. This brought monastic schools into being. Later monasteries assumed the form of big ‘Viharas’ for education. The monks, nuns and laity were provided facility and opportunities for education at these centers.

Students belonging to different ranks and classes and coming from distant ‘Janapadas’ or republics received education free of charge. There centers attracted students from abroad i.e., China, Tibet, Japan and other countries of Southeast Asia. The centers of higher learning such as Taxila and Nalanda rose to the status of universities. However, universities in ancient India were not well-organized bodies like the universities of modern times. They were like ‘Studia Generalia’ of medieval Europe, settlements of teachers where students congregated, lived and learnt what they desired to learn at the hands of the teachers who taught what they knew. They did not lay down definite regulations for entrance or for examination, did not prescribe different courses of study in different branches of knowledge, did not prepare students for any particular examination, did not hold any public examination and did not grant any degrees or diplomas. Among such centers of higher education in ancient India Takshashila (Taxila), Varanasi (Benaras), Ujjain, Valabhi and Nalanda were the best known.

Takshashila (Taxila) – (derived from Taksha – the local ruler) bears the name of the capital of the province of Gandhar (modern Kandhar) near present city of Peshawar. From times immemorial, Taxila has been an important center of Brahmanical education. It was a seat of Hindu and Buddhist Culture where hundreds of teachers and students flocked from different parts of India and the outlying countries of Asia long before the beginning of the Christian era. As early as in the 17^th century B.C. it attracted students from far off places like Benaras and it was famous for its schools of philosophy even at the time of Alexander’s invasion in the 4^th century B.C. Buddhist Jataka Number 252 relates that Brahmadatta, a King of Benaras, sent his 16 year old son to far off Taxila to complete his education giving him a pair of one soled sandals, an umbrella of leaves and a thousand gold pieces. On arriving at Taxila the boy went to the teachers house and he was readily welcomed by the teacher and lodged and boarded in his house. When he say the teacher the next morning he had the following conversation with him. ‘Where have you come from?’ asked the teacher. ‘From Benaras’ replied the boy. ‘Whose son are you?’ ‘I am the son of the King of Benaras’. ‘What brings you here?’ ‘I have come to learn’. ‘Well have you brought the teachers fee, or do you wish to serve me in return for learning from me?’ questioned the teacher. ‘I have brought the fee with me’, said the boy and laid his purse of a thousand pieces at the teacher’s feet. The story is interesting, as showing 16 years as the age for proceeding to university education, completion of education, as the aim of such education. The modest manner in which the students were equipped for it, the fee varying with their means, which those who could afford, paid for and the domestic service which others could not afford rendered in return for their instruction. The long and difficult journey undertaken by those seeking education and the humility with which they approached their teachers and the parental manner in which the teachers received and treated them was remarkable.

During the Buddhist period the fame of Taxila continued in Northern India. But when Fa-Hein visited it in 5^th century A.D. there was no sign of any university there and when Hiuen Tsang visited in 7^th century was very much disappointed to see merely the last relics of this important center of education.

Taxila was constantly overwhelmed with foreign invasions owing to its situation in the North Western frontiers of India. Hence politically it underwent many vicissitudes as a result of occasional invasions. The Persians, Greeks, and the Kushanas attacked it and established their empires from time to time. it can be easily inferred that with change of empires, its educational system too must have continued to change.

Infact there was no organized institution or university at Taxila. Education rested mainly on domestic system. Many learned and erudite preceptors imparted education to the students separately. Hence it had become a very big educational center, mainly a center of higher education (post 16 years). The chief branches of subject of study were Vedatrayi (three Vedas), Vedant, Vyakaran, Ayurveda, 18 Sippas (craft), military education, astronomy, agriculture, commerce, snake bite cure, etc. Panini, the father of Vyakarana (grammar) and Jivaka, an expert in surgery and medicine were the products of Taxila. No caste distinctions were observed as regards to the training in these sciences and this can be testified by the example of a young Brahman boy who went there to learn military art and science.

Taxila had been influenced by the Greek culture also. Some preceptors taught Greek there. Training in Greek military art was also conducted. Taxila was very famous as the centre of training in Indian military sciences. The study of medicine took a period of 7 years which can be borne out by Jivaka’s residence at Taxila. Kautilya, the famous author of Arthashastra had received his higher education here.

Thus for several centuries Taxila continued to flourish as a great center of education till it was destroyed by the barbaric Huns who invaded India in 455 A.D.

Varanasi (Benares) – Benares is one of the oldest seats of learning in India. It came into existence later than Taxila. Its fame as a stronghold of religious learning was so great in ancient times that every religious leader who desired to propagate his doctrine felt compelled to preach it first to its (Benares’) renowned pandits and shastris. In the 7^th century B.C. Benares was probably the most famous center of learning in eastern India. That seems to have been one of the reasons for its being selected by the Buddha as the place for the fist promulgation of his gospel in 528 B.C. at Sarnath, about four miles away from Benares. Shankaracharya had to do likewise to propound his Advaita (monastic) philosophy of the Vedanta in later times.

In the Tittira Jataka we read that ‘a world renouned professor of Benares gave instructions in science to 500 young Brahmins’ and afterwards retired to a forest home on the slopes of the Himalayas to carry on his educational work. In the Kosiya Jataka it is stated that in the region of King Bramhadatta of Benares, Bodhisattava being born in the Brahmin family became renowned teacher at Benares and taught the Vedas and the 18 vidyas to Brahmin boys and kshatriya princes.

In the Jataka period Benares was however largely the creation of the ex-students of Taxila. We find that schools for teaching of spells and charms by students trained in Taxila were established here. For the study of ordinary subjects there were already many schools.

Benares, however, was not without its own alumni as educationists. There are several references to teaches of worldwide fame with the usual number of 500 pupils to teach. There were certain subjects in the teaching of which Benares seems ot have specialized. There are references, for example, to a school of music presided over by an expert who was the chief of his kind in the entire country. It was at Benares Panini wrote his famous grammar that Kapila evolved his Samkhya Philosophy, that Yaska wrote his ‘Nirkta’ and Gautama wrote his ‘Nyaya shastra’. Shankaracharya is said to have studied at Benares – the accepted touchstone of all new doctrines from the ancient days even from the days of Buddha. There in Benares, Shankara published his new doctrine of Vedanta and convinced the pundits of Benares of its truth.

While Benares remained the seat of Hindu learning, Sarnath developed since Buddha’s time into a great seat of Buddhist religion and learning. It was liberally patronized by Asoka and appears to have been in a flourishing condition in the 7^th century AD. In 7^th century AD it possessed resplendent and beautiful buildings with tiers of balconies and rows of hills. Unfortunately, Hien Tsang does not state anything about the educational activity of Sarnath monastery, but there can be no doubt that it must have emulated the glorious example of neighboring Nalanda. It had 1500 monk students. There is ample evidence to show that it continued to be a great center of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage down to the 12^th century A.D.

Valabhi – modern Vala in Kathiawad, was also a great seat of Brahminic as well as Buddhist learning. It flourished about the same time as Nalanda. It was the capital seat of the Maitrika Kings between 475 and 775 A.D. There were several Viharas and monasteries in Valabhi. The great Buddhist teachers, Sthiramati and Gunamati of Nalanda were for some time in charge of Buddhist teaching at Valabhi. It attracted a large number of students from far and near. ‘Kathsaritsagara’ the well-known Sanskrit work makes mention of a Brahmin of the Gangetic plain sending his son to Valabhi for education. This shows the widespread reputation which Valabhi enjoyed as the seat of learning.

Valabhi as a center of education has found a reference in the accounts of Hien Tsang. When he visited the place there were some hundred ‘Samgharamas’ established. Like Hien Tsang, I-Tsing too had found Valabhi in the Western side of India as glorious as Nalanda and students from every part of India would flock there for education. These students having finished their higher education were appointed in the courts on high and respectable posts. This clearly indicates that Valabhi was the center not much of religious education as of other secular subjects such as economics, law, politics and medical science. Nalanda was the center of Mahayana branch of Buddhist religion but Valabhi was the center of Hinayana Buddhism.

By the 7^th century AD Valabhi had accomplished appreciable fame regards its education. Still prior to this period it was an important commercial center carrying on sea-borne trade. Many wealthy merchants lived in Valabhi. These wealthy merchants patronized education. The Maitrika Kings made large benefactories to the universities specially to the library. In this way the University of Valabhi continued to function up to 12^th century disseminating the seeds of learning in the country. Afterwards it met no better fate than sister institutions at the hands of vandalism and ultimately wiped out of existence.

Nalanda – Taranath in his ‘History of Buddhism’ records the tradition that Nalanda was the birthplace of Sariputta whose Chaitya was seen by Ashoka who added a temple to it. Thus, Ashoka could be considered as the first founder of the Nalanda Vihara. However, the place did not become educationally important before the rise of Mahayana Buddhism at the beginning of the Christian era.

When Fa-Hein visited it, Nalanda was called Nala and was known as the place where Sariputta was born, and to which also he returned and attained here his ‘pari nirvana’. Ove the spot where his body was burnt, there was built a tope which Fa Hien found still in existence.

Hieun Tsang stayed at Nalanda for a period of 5 years. He gives an interesting account regarding the origin of the monastery. According to him its grounds were the fit to the Buddha by 500 merchants. This original endowment was the precursor of a continuous series of endowments through the centuries by a succession of sovereigns. The endowments took the form of buildings as well as lands from which came the revenue for the maintenance of the University. Hien Tsang thus mentions six monasteries as having been built by as many kings and these constituted the Nalanda establishment in his time.

It has been observed that the description of Nalanda by Hien Tsang is corroborated by the Nalanda Stone Inscription of Yashovarman of the 8^th century A.D. stating how the row of monasteries had their series and summits licking the clouds. The massive external grandeur of the buildings contrasted with the delicate artistic beauty of their interior.

Besides gifts of buildings, the Nalanda University received gifts of land. In Hien Tsang’s time, ‘the king of the country remitted the revenue of about hundred villages for the endowment of the convent’. In I-Tsing’s time, ‘the land in its possession bestowed upon the monastery by the Kings of many generations contained more than two hundred villages’. Out of the income of these estates the university provided for all its alumni free of cost their four requisites of clothes, food, bedding and medicine. The number of alumni in Hien Tsang’s time always reached the figure of 10000 counting the priests belonging to the convent and strangers residing there. The standard of living seemed to have varied with the standing of the monks. In I-tsings time, the number of students supported at the monastery exceeded 3000. The students being so abundantly supplied and having not had to worry about their material need of life, could give themselves whole heartedly to their studies and self-culture.

The condition of admission to Nalanda shows that it was run as an institution of higher learning or post graduate studies. The institution was noted for its specialization in the last stages of university education. Nalanda was built up as a post graduate university for advanced study and research. Foreign students came from countries like Korea, Mongolia, Japan, China, Tukhara, Tibet and Ceylon in search of higher education. The highest academic degree or distinction of the time was a Fellowship of Nalanda. Thus, it was quite difficult to secure admission to Nalanda. The entrance examination was very strict, so its standard might be in keeping with that of its studies.

The method of learning in Nalanda was quite modern. It was the method of discussion in seminars. It was most popular among the students. According to Hien Tsang with learning and discussing, students found the day too short and so they practiced day and night to attain perfection. The teachers delivered between them everyday as many as 100 discourses on many different subjects.

Students specialized in their higher studies on the basis of their preparatory knowledge of the following five compulsory subjects Grammar and Lexicography (Sabda Vidya, science of sounds and words), arts and crafts (Silpthananvidya), science of Medicine (Chikitsavidya), logic (Hetuvidya) and Philosophy (Adhyatmavidya).

Besides these compulsory subjects of study, Nalanda provided for instruction in all learning then known, Brahminical and Buddhist, sacred and secular, philosophical and practical, sciences and arts. The Head of the University, Silabhadra by name, was the highest authority on the theory and practice of yoga which Hien Tsang came all the way from China, against the perils of that difficult journey by land route, to learn at the feet of its master at Nalanda.

A singular feature of Nalanda education was that it Indianized the foreign students as far as possible. They dropped even their own foreign names and assumed in their place Indian names. Foreign students had their own colleges for their residence and study at Nalanda. The most famous example of these was the college or vihara founded for Japanese students (Vihara Karitah) by an endowment made by their King Balaputradeva, ‘Lord of Suvarna-dvipa and Yava Bhumi’, as recorded in an inscription of King Devapaladeva of Magadha of 854AD. The endowment provided for the students and their necessities such as food (pindapata), clothing (chivara), accmodations (satra), beds(sayanasana), medicines (bheshajyadi), pens (ukhanadi) and religious needs (bali and charee). This college was known as a center of Tantrika Buddhism.

Some of the masterminds and creative geniuses of India were teachers at Nalanda in different periods. Its president in Hien Tsang’s time was Silbhadra, a prince of Samatata in South Bengal who renounced the world to become a yogi. The great chemist Nagarjuna was a teacher at Nalanda for years, together with his famous pupil Aryadeva, the founder of Madhyamika School of Buddhism. Here also lived for twelve years Asanga, the founder of the Yogachara School. He is said to have been followed as the President of Nalanda by the equally famous scholar Vasubandhu. Vasubandhu had as his disciple the equally famous Dignaga, an authority on Buddhist logic and native of Kanchi who came to Nalanda on invitation to take part in disputation at a learned conference which awarded to him the title of ‘Tarakpungava’ for his victory in it.

Nalanda scholars were also examples of self sacrifice in choosing to live as permanent exiles in foreign countries like China and Tibet to introduce to them Indian thought and culture. They equipped themselves for this sacred mission as linguists who could translate into Chinese and Tibetan the classics of Sanskrit and Pali religious literature. Among Nalanda scholars thus working in China may be mentioned Kumarajiva and Paramartha, the translator of the ‘Life of Vasubandhu’ 5^th century AD, Subhakara Sinha (8^th century) and Dharma Deva, who during 40 years (960-1000 AD) translated into Chinese as many as 118 Buddhist texts.

The Tibetan Tripitaka mentions the contributions made by the scholars and books of Nalanda to the culture and civilization of Tibet. The works of Arya Deva, Silabhadra or Dharmapala were translated into Tibetan. Religious thinkers like Santarakshita (749AD), Padmasambhava or Atisa Dipankara Srijnana of Pundravardhana settled down in Tibet in the service of a sacred cause, and have been canonized by its devoted people. It was these scholars who helped to build up a greater India in Asia.

The Nalanda University accommodated its vast population of about 15,000 in seven monasteries and eight halls of several storeys with ‘their upper rooms towering above the clouds like pointed hill tops’ as described by Hien Tsang.

The university was also equipped with an adequate library located in a separate area aptly called Dharmaganja, ‘the Mart of Piety’ or ‘Adobe of Religion’, and housed in three buildings appropriately designated as ‘Ratnasagara’, ‘Ratnadadhhi’, and ‘Ratnaranjaka’ ‘Oceans of Gems of Learning’. Ratnaranjaka was probably the library of Fine Arts or Belles-Letters, while the two others were libraries of Philosophy and Religion. Ratnasagara was a big library of nine storeys. An inscription of the Mukhari King Yasovarmmadeva (729-43 AD) describes how Nalanda was a vast collection of hostels or viharas.

The University had its own seal to testify to its corporate character. It bore the inscription ‘Sri Nalanda Mahavihariya Arya Bikshu Sanghasya’ – ‘Of the Sangha or Community of Venerable Monks in charge of the Holy and Central Monastry of Nalanda’. The individual affiliated Colleges called Viharas had also their own seals.

A notable feature of Nalanda was its democratic management in several matters. It assigned to its students democracy and appropriate share in administration. They were in charge of residential arrangements and the annual allotment of rooms to boarders. Seniors trusted their juniors to look after their physical needs. Discipline was left to them as their own concern. They were to judge of cases of offences against the brotherhood, and could expel the offenders. The result of this democratic management was that the problems of indiscipline among students did not trouble the university, so that, as recorded Hien Tsang, ‘there did not occur a single case of any guilty rebellion against the Institution’. Besides, even the budget of the university was passed by the general body of the monks including teachers and students. Some mature students indeed made the case for their democratic association with the administration of the university.

Nalanda was also a center of practical education and business training in the arts and crafts of the times described as Silpasthanavidya, including medical education. The economy of the times centered mainly around agriculture and dairy farming which had to be organized efficiently by the university for its own maintenance. The university had to feed its own population from the produce of its own farms with rice and protective foods like mild and its products like butter, constituting a most nutritive diet for them.

The university had also to depend upon itself for the supply of clothing for its alumni, according to established educational tradition as recorded in canonical Buddhist texts. It was felt that monks in residence were ill at ease without the practice of some handicraft. Every monk was thus enjoined to toil, spin and weave. He was allowed ‘the use of a loom, and of shutters, strings, tickets and all the apparatus belonging to a loom’. The monks had to make their own robes and keep them in fit condition with the help of all necessary weaving appliances. It is to be noted that the student was allowed the uniform of a scanty and simplified triple clothing (chivara) made up of three parts, the upper garment to be untailored and worn as a wrapper, the lower garment reaching form waist to foot (dhoti) and a towel. Thus, spinning yarn and weaving cloth was a compulsory handicraft to be plied by every monk as part of his education.

The affairs of the university were administered by an adequate executive staff which according to I-tsing included the following officers – Viharapala, the principal of the Vihara, whose duty was to enforce rules, regulate admission and report its affairs to the Assembly of Monks, Viharasvami, the master of the College, the keeper of the university’s seal, records and effects and Karmadana, the superintendent of Hostels. The Buddhist canonical texts mention various other officers charged with the administration of Vihara, such as officers to apportion, rooms, rations, robes, together with Aranikas incharge of the university’s ground and campus and overseers or Navakammikas to supervise the construction and repair of the buildings.

The training in arts and crafts led to the development of a regular school of art at Nalanda, producing images and sculptures in stone, metal or bronze, inspired by the prevailing religions of the time, Mahayana and its later developments known as Tantrayana, Vajrayana and Kalachakrayana. Hien Tsang saw the worship at Nalanda of the deities  Tara, Buddha and Bodhisatvas, and I-Tsing, Harti.

Nalanda fashioned a variety of images in stone and bronze, images of the Buddha, Bodhisatvas like Manjusri and Avalokitesvara, of female deities like Hariti, Tara, Prajnaparamita or Vasudhara, images of Tantrika deities like Trailokyavijaya, Heruka, Marichi, Vajrapani and the divine Bodhisatva and images of Brahmanical deities Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Surya, Durga and the like I-Tsing says that the beauty of these marvelous sculptured images touches the limit in the art of ornamentation. 

Ujjain – According to Bana the inhabitants of Ujjain are connoisseurs in all arts; skilled in foreign languages, clever in subtilities of speech, versed in stories of all kinds, accomplished in letters, having a keen delight in the Mahabharata, the Puranas and the Ramayana, familiar with the Brihatkatha, masters of the whole circle of arts, lovers of Shastras, devoted to light literature.

Ujjain as a great center of learning attracted Shankaracharya who defeated a Pashupatacharya in argument. Al-Beruni relates the story of the alchemist Vyadi who was veritable martyr to the science of alchemy. Ujjain was however, famous for the study of astronomy and it became the meridian from which the Hindus counted the longitude of other places.

Vikramasila – Like Valabhi and Nalanda, the university of Vikramasila was also the result of royal benefactions. The history of the Vikramasila university is given by Taranath. According to him, the Vikramasial Vihara was founded by King Dharmapala on a suitable site, a hillock on the bank of the Ganges in northern Magadha. Cunningham identified it with the village Silao near Baragaon. Dr. S. C. Vidyabhushana identified it with Sultanganj in Bhagalpur district.

The teaching in the Vikramsila University was controlled by a board of eminent teachers. It is stated that this board also administer the affairs of Nalanda. This kind of coordination of work and management between the two universities was perhaps det to King Dharmapala being their common head. Accordingly, we find teachers like Deepankara and Abayakara working at both the universities or exchanges of teachers between them.

Vikramasila monastery founded by King Dharmapala in the 8^th century was a famous center of international learning for more than four centuries. King Dharmapala also build temples and monasteries at the place and liberally endowed them. He also erected several halls for lecturing work. His successors continued to patronize the university down to the 13^th century.

The monks of Vikramasila University were usually distinguished scholars and the fame of the university soon spread beyond the Himalayas. There was continuous contact between the Vikramasila University and Tibet for four centuries. A special guest house was maintained for the use of Tibetan scholars coming to learn at the feet of Indian pandits. One cannot help admiring the continuous tradition of high scholarship that was maintained at the Vikramasila University throughout its history.

Tibetan sources inform us that Buddha, Jnanpada, Vairochana, Rakshita Jetari Ratnakar santi, Jnanasrimitra, Abhayankar Gupta and a host of other Vikramasila scholars wrote numerous books in Sanskrit and translated scores of them in Tibetan. The most distinguished in this galaxy of Vikramasila scholars was Dipankara Sri Jnana, more commonly known as Upadhaya Atisa, who flourished in the 11^th century. He went to Tibet at the invitation of its King Chan Chab and played an important part in the restoration of Buddhism in Tibet. As many as 200 books, both original and in translation have been attributed to him by the Tibetan tradition.

When there was such a galaxy of distinguished scholars of Vikramasila, it was but natural that the numerical strength of the university should have enormously increased as is evident by the number of scholars attracted to the university. In the 12^th century, there were 3000 monk scholars residing at the university. The college possessed a rich and extensive library.

According to tradition the Vihara was named after a Yaksha called Vikrama who was suppressed here. As it was founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty, it was known as the Royal University of Vikramasila. Dharmapala furnished the university with four establishments each consisting of 27 monks belonging to the four principal sects of Buddhism. Later on other buildings were added so that it came to have six colleges, a central hall called the House of Science and four hostels. There was also a large quadrangle which could accommodate an assembly of 8000 people. At the gate outside the wall there was a dharmasala for strangers who arrived late after closing of the gates.

The administrative management of the Vikramasala University was presided over by the chief abbot. Different members of the Board were assigned different administrative duties like the ordination of the novices, supply and supervision of servants, distribution of food and fuel, assignment of monastic work, etc. Mond professors led a simple life. The cost of maintaining one of them was equal to the cost of supporting four ordinary monks.

Academic administration was vested in a Council of Six Devapandits presided over by the chief Abbot. The function of the Devapandits was to test the scholarship of those seeking admission to the university.

Grammar, logic, metaphysics, tantras and ritualism were the main subjects specialized at the institution. The curriculum was thus, not so wide or catholic as that of Nalanda. Unfortunately we do not have information of the duration or the gradation of courses at Vikramasila. But there is every probability that it was more systematically organized than was the case at any other center of ancient Indian education. For unlike at any other university, we find diplomas and titles being conferred on the Vikramasila studets at the end of their course by the reigning Kings of Bengal. Tibetan authorities inform us that Jetari and Ratnavajra had received degrees at the hands of King Mahipala and Kanaka respectively. The memory of the distinguished alumni of the university was kept evergreen in the minds of the congregation by their pictures being put on the walls of the university halls. This honor is known to have been given to Nagarjuna and Atisa.

In 1203, the Vikramasila university was destroyed by the Muslim conquerors under Bhattiyar Khilji who seemed to have mistaken it for a fort. At that time, Sakya Zri Bhadra was at the helm of the monastic affairs. The account of the destruction of the University has been preserved by the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiri.

Kanchi – Kanchipuram was another great center of learning in South India. Hien Tsang visited this seat of education and had conversations with monks who had come from Ceylon to study various subjects as yoga, philosophy, etc. Dharmapala of Kanchi defeated a hundred Hinayana Sutrakaras in a debate lasting for seven days. The Jaina Rajavalikatha mentions Samantabhadra as having gone to Kanchipuram a number of times and the Mysore inscription bears this out. South of it there was a monastery which was a rendezvous of the most eminent men of the country.