MAULANA ABUL KALAM AZAD | MEDIA ICON

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad's real name was Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin. He was popularly known as Maulana Azad.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was one of the foremost leaders of Indian freedom struggle. He was also a renowned scholar, and poet. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was well versed in many languages - Arabic, English, Urdu, Hindi, Persian and Bengali. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was a brilliant debater, as indicated by his name, Abul Kalam, which literally means "Lord of dialogue". He adopted the pen name Azad as a mark of his mental emancipation from a narrow view of religion and life.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was born on November 11, 1888 in Mecca. His forefathers came from Herat (a city Afghanistan) in Babar's days. Azad was a descendent of a lineage of learned Muslim scholars, or maulanas. His mother was an Arab and the daughter of Sheikh Mohammad Zaher Watri and his father, Maulana Khairuddin, was a Bengali Muslim of Afghan origins. Khairuddin left India during tile Sepoy Mutiny and proceeded to Mecca and settled there. He came back to Calcutta with his family in 1890.

Because of his orthodox family background Azad had to pursue traditional Islamic education. He was taught at home, first by his father and later by appointed teachers who were eminent in their respective fields. Azad learned Arabic and Persian first and then philosophy, geometry, mathematics and algebra. He also learnt English, world history, and politics through self-study.

Azad was trained and educated to become a clergyman. He wrote many works, reinterpreting the holy Quran. His erudition let him to repudiate Taqliq or the tradition of conformity and accept the principle of Tajdid or innovation. He developed interest in the pan Islamic doctrines of Jamaluddin Afghani and the Aligarh thought of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan. Imbued with the pan-Islamic spirit, he visited Afghanistan, Iraq, Egypt, Syria and Turkey. In Iraq he met the exiled revolutionaries who were fighting to establish a constitutional government in Iran. In Egypt he met Shaikh Muhammad Abduh and Saeed Pasha and other revolutionary activists of the Arab world. He had a first-hand knowledge of the ideals and spirit of the young Turks in Constantinople. All these contacts metamorphosed him into a nationalist revolutionary.

On his return from abroad; Azad met two leading revolutionaries of Bengal- Aurobindo Ghosh and Sri Shyam Sundar Chakravarty, and joined the revolutionary movement against British rule. Azad found that the revolutionary activities were restricted to Bengal and Bihar.

Within two years, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad helped set up secret revolutionary centers all over north India and Bombay. During that time most of his revolutionaries were anti-Muslim because they felt that the British government was using the Muslim community against India's freedom struggle. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad tried to convince his colleagues to shed their hostility towards Muslims.

In 1912, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad started a weekly journal in Urdu called Al-Hilal to increase the revolutionary recruits amongst the Muslims. Al-Hilal played an important role in forging Hindu-Muslim unity after the bad blood created between the two communities in the aftermath of Morley-Minto reforms. Al-Hilal became a revolutionary mouthpiece ventilating extremist view. The government regarded Al- Hilal as propagator of secessionist views and banned it in 1914. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad then started another weekly called Al-Balagh with the same mission of propagating Indian nationalism and revolutionary ideas based on Hindu-Muslim unity. In 1916, the government banned this paper too and expelled Maulana Abul Kalam Azad from Calcutta and internet him at Ranchi from where he was released after the First World War 1920.

After his release, Azad roused the Muslim community through the Khilafat Movement. The aim of the movement was to re-instate the Khalifa as the head of British captured Turkey.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad supported the Non-Cooperation Movement started by Gandhiji and entered Indian National Congress in 1920. He was elected as the president of the special session of the Congress in Delhi (1923). Maulana Azad was again arrested in 1930 for violation of the salt laws as part of Gandhiji's Salt Satyagraha. He was put in Meerut jail for a year and a half. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad became the president of Congress in 1940 (Ramgarh) and remained in the post till 1946. He was a staunch opponent of partition and supported a confederation of autonomous provinces with their own constitutions but common defense and economy. Partition hurt him greatly and shattered his dream of an unified nation where Hindus and Muslims can co-exist and prosper together.

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad served as the Minister of Education (the first education minister in independent India) in Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru's cabinet from 1947 to 1958. He died of a stroke on February 22, 1958. For his invaluable contribution to the nation, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was posthumously awarded India's highest civilian honor, Bharat Ratna in 1992.

K. C. MAMMEN MAPILLAI | MEDIA ICON

 Background: K C Mammen Mappillai was born on 4th of May 1873 as the eldest son of Kandathil Cherian Mappillai and Mariamma. He had 2 older sisters 5 younger brothers and 2 younger sisters.

Education: He passed Matriculation from Thiruvalla High School, Intermediate (F A) from C M S College, Kottayam and B A from Madras Christian College.

After passing B A., he wanted to enter the Mysore Civil Service like some of his college-mates. But his uncle Varghese Mappillai, founder of Malayala Manorama persuaded him to come back to Kerala and become a schoolteacher. He joined M D Seminary High School and became its Headmaster. Varghese Mappillai persuaded his nephew to help him in the working of Malayala Manorama.

Varghese Mappillai (his uncle) passed away in July 1904, and the mantle of publishing the newspaper fell on the shoulders of Mammen Mappillai who was just 31 years old.

He resigned his Headmastership in 1908 and took over the publishing of Manorama as full time job. He became its longest Editor. During his time Manorama became a bi-weekly in 1918 and Daily in 1928.

Along with publishing he went into a number of business projects some of which never saw the light of Day. Shipping, Road Transport, Retail Shop, Book Publications etc. were some of them. However, he gave Kerala's economy a new bounce. He used Malayala Manorama to popularise cultivation, particularly rubber, the ‘money tree’ from Brazil. Rubber eventually became backbone of Kerala midlands and continues to be so.

One of the other institutions he had started was Travancore National bank. It was later amalgamated with Quilon Bank started by C P Mathen in 1936. The new name was Travancore National & Quilon Bank.

He took active part in the struggle of the Malankara Church against the Antiochian hegemony.

He was a member of the Modern Legislative Assembly of the Erstwhile State of Travancore. He played a key role in the struggle for Civil Rights and responsible Government.

The various activities of K C Mammen Mappillai were not appreciated by the then Dewan of Travancore Sir C P Ramaswamy Iyer, particularly his political activities, which had the support of his newspaper.

The Dewan of Travancore went all out to break the political activities of K C Mammen Mappillai. He made the Travancore Government seal the newspaper office. Owing to the adverse propaganda by Government the bank closed in 1938.

K C Mammen Mappillai was arrested and put in jail for 2 years.

In 1947 after India became independent, he came back to Kerala and restarted Malayala Manorama on 29th November 1947. He ran it with his eldest son K M Cherian till his death at midnight on December 3, 1953.

His anchor all through the crests and troughs was Mammy, his wife whom he married when he was just fifteen. She inspired him, comforted him and bore him nine children, all of whom made a mark in their chosen fields.

As a mark of respect to his departed soul, the Chief Minister of the then Travancore- Cochin, Sri A J John and his cabinet ministers led the funeral procession, which was a signal honour considering what the previous Dewan-led Government did to Malayala Manorama and K C Mammen Mappillai.

The K. C. Mammen Mappillai Award presented to the best student of the Manorama School of Communication was named after him.

His legacy lives on-in Malayala Manorama's undying love for freedom and in his indelible imprint on Kerala's destiny.

LETTER WRITING EXERCISE / SAMPLE

Radhika / Rajesh went for a vacation with her / his family to Manali and stayed at Hotel Paradise. However, she / he was not satisfied with the service provided by the hotel.

Write a letter describing the stay and provide relevant solutions. (Use Full block form)

 

SAMPLE SOLUTION

 

Room no. 301,
Desai Colony,

St. Dominic Road,
Mumbai – 400050.
11 March 2021

 

To,
The Hotel Manager,

Hotel Paradise,
Manali,
Uttarakhand- 360087

 

Subject- Complaint and feedback letter

 

Dear Sir

I wish to inform you about my stay at your hotel from 02/03/2021 to 06/03/2021. I regret to inform you that my family and I are quite unsatisfied with the stay at your hotel.

 

We came to know about your hotel from a travel site. Although the pictures and reviews were quite decent, the actual experience didn’t conform to the standards. For instance, the bed sheets and quilts were dirty; the staff was not cooperative, and the room service was slow. We were made to pay separately for the cab service even though the website mentioned that the accommodation charges included a free cab.

 

I suggest you look into these matters carefully as they will help to improve your service and ensure a better experience for the customers. Moreover, it would be better if you could mention the correct information about the facilities, which you are willing to provide on the partner websites.

 

Yours truly

Rajesh

HISTORY OF TELEVISION IN INDIA

Television is a telecommunication medium that is used for transmitting and receiving moving images and sound. Television can transmit images that are monochrome (black & white), in color and in three dimensions.

Television was invented by John Logie Baird in 1925. Mechanical Televisions were commercially sold from 1928-1935 in United Kingdom, United States of America and Soviet Union.

The first commercially made electronic televisions with cathode ray tubes were manufactured by Telefunken in Germany in 1934, followed by other makers in France, Britain and America.

In 1935 the first regular Television series in the world started from Berlin.

In 1954 Color Television started in the United States of America.

1974 – First Video Cassette Recorder invented in Japan.

By 1987 Japan introduced High Definition Television Broadcasting.

The 1990s saw world wide boom in Satellite and Cable Networks.

1995 – Direct to Home (DTH) was seen in developed countries.

By late 2000s CRT display technology was introduced worldwide by flat panel displays such as LCD.

Television in India – Television emerged in India on 15^th September 1959. Television broadcasting had a slow start in India as it was initially regarded as an expensive gadget.

The first experimental transmission began at Delhi. The objective of the first transmission was to analyze what could be achieved with this tool of community development. The initial funding for the equipment came from the United States. Within the range of 40 kms of the transmitter 180 tele-clubs were set up. The television sets were provided by UNESCO. The professional and engineering staff were provided by All India Radio. The Akashvani auditorium served as the studio from where regular programs were put on air.

On 24^th October 1961 school television for students in Delhi was started.

From 15^th August 1965 regular services with daily news bulletin began.

On 26^th January 1961 Krishi Darshan was started and catered to the farmers of the tele-clubs in Delhi and Haryana.

On 2^nd October 1972 television services were extended to the city of Mumbai. By 1975 the services were further extended to cities of Calcutta, Chennai, Srinagar, Amritsar, and Lucknow.

On 1^st August 1975 Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) was launched. The satellite was loaned to ISRO by NASA for one year. this experiment beamed satellite television programs for four hours daily based on education, health, family planning and agriculture to 2400 villages scattered across six states in India.

SITE was also used to telecast entertainment programs consisting chiefly of rural art, music, and dance. SITE’s primary agenda was not only to educate people about solutions to the country’s problems, but also to unify the diverse and multilingual audiences by exposing them to one another’s culture. SITE opened up the possibility of connecting people in far and unreachable corners of the country through the magic of satellite communication. This was an important milestone in the development of television.

Doordarshan – Television was separated from All India Radio on 1^st April 1976 and constituted under a new body named Doordarshan. It is one of the media units of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. Regular satellite link between Delhi and other transmitters were established to facilitate the introduction of national programs. Doordarshan was established with the motive of public service broadcasting. Its aim was to inform, educate and entertain the masses.

Here are some of the major landmarks in the history of Doordarshan:

1^st Jan 1976 – Commercials introduced on television.

1^st April 1976 – Doordarshan was separated from All India Radio.

15^th August 1982 – Color television was introduced.

15^th August 1982 – Countrywide Classroom by UGC was launched.

15^th July 1984 – ‘Humlog’ the first sponsored serial was broadcast.

19^th November 1984 – A second channel was started at Delhi.

9^th August 1986 – First regional satellite network was started in Maharashtra.

23^rd February 1987 – Morning transmission began.

1987 – Ramayana directed by Ramanand Sagar was broadcast.

1988 – Mahabharat produced by B. R. Chopra was broadcast.

26 January 1981 – afternoon transmission began.

1^st April 1993 – Metro entertainment channel began with satellite networking.

15^th August 1993 – Five DD Satellite channels were started.

1^st October 1993 – Regional language satellite channels began.

15^th August 1994 – Major restructuring of DD1 to DD13 took place. Relay station service from state capitals.

14^th March 1995 – DD India – an international channel was introduced.

14^th November 1995 – DD3 an infotainment channel was introduced.

23^rd November 1997 – Prasar Bharati became an autonomous broadcasting corporation in India.

18^th March 1999 – DD Sports channel was started.

7^th August 1999 – News was broadcast by the hour.

15^th August 1999 – DD News and Current Affairs Channel started as a test transmission.

2000 – Gyan Darshan – India’s first educational television channel started.

2003 – Eklavya Technology Channel started. This was a part of Gyan Darshan.

2002 – DD Bharati was introduced.

2004 – DTH services began.

Doordarshan has three tier program service – national, regional and local. The national programs include news, current affairs, services, sports, music, dance, drama, serials and feature films. DD4 – DD13 are regional channels. DD14 – DD17 telecast programs for the four hindi speaking states. DD India comprises of eighteen hours of transmission. DD CNI is the channel of News and Current Affairs.

Doordarshan started to appear in color during Asian Games. The success of the nineth Asian Games and its live coverage by DD through satellite INSAT 1A led to the emergence of a new concept of live coverage in the nation especially regarding the sports events.

History of Television post Liberalization – The economic reforms of 1991 by the government allowed private and foreign broadcasters to engage in limited operations in India. Several foreign channels like CNN, Star TV and domestic channels like Zee TV, Sun TV started satellite broadcasts.

The cable television industry witnessed a sharp ascent (rise) in the early 1990s. During this time, we see the entry of foreign players like Rupert Murdoch’s Star TV Network in 1991, MTV and others.

Sun TV was launched in 1992 as the first private channel in South India. Five new channels like MTV, Star Plus, BBC, Prime Sports and STAR channel firmed its ground int eh Indian market. Zee TV was the first private owned Indian channel to broadcast over cable.

By 2001-2003, international channels like Nickelodeon, Cartoon Network, VH1, Disney, and Toon Disney made a quick impact in the Indian market.

Television in India truly attracted and impacted the masses over the years.

Watch the video by clicking the linkHistory of Television

OIL POLITICS

West Asian countries have oil reserves, but in the early nineteenth century, their people were unable to exploit it for their own use or anyone else’s benefit. In 1908, William Knox, a New Zealander had obtained a concession for the exploitation, sale and export of oil in Iran through the APOC.

The terms of the treaty were:

The concession was to last for 60 years after which all machinery, buildings and installations were to revert to Iran without any compensation.

The Iranian Government was to receive an annual royalty of 16% of the net profits of the APOC.

Oil was struck in commercial quantities in May 1908 at Majid-e-Suleman. In 1909, APOC was formed with a capital of 2 million pounds. In I914, the British navy began to use oil instead of coal-based energy in its ships. In order to obtain oil at a low price and to prevent other countries from having a share in the rich Iranian oil deposits, the British Navy purchased 55% of APOC’s shares and became the controlling shareholder.

Meanwhile, Russia and American Companies tried to extract concessions but were unsuccessful. APOC was increasing oil production and by 1933 it was producing 70 million tons per year. most of the administrative staff were British and they occupied all key positions. The Iranians were exploited and treated as inferior.

The Advent of Reza Shah: When Reza Shah came to power in 1925, the concession agreement with the APOC was revised to make it more favorable to the Iranian government.

It reduced the area covered by the concession to 100,000 sq miles.

The royalty payment guaranteed a fixed income to Iran

The new arrangements were not beneficial to the Iranian government.

In 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the APOC to Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC)

Iran and World War II: During World War II, Iran was occupied by British, Americans, and Russian troops, which took over or otherwise controlled most of the administration. In 1943, the three powers reached an agreement for withdrawing their respective troops from Iran within six months after the end of the war. Russian troops left Iran only after the UN exerted considerable pressure on Russians. Even then Russians set up a pro-Russian regime in Iran’s northern province Azerbaijan, adjacent to the Russian border. This political confusion at home weakened Iran’s international standing.

After the war, both Britain and Russia were interested in controlling the oil rich deposits in Iran. Russia agreed to withdraw her forces only if their demand for oil concessions was granted. However, in 1945 the Iranian Majlis (Parliament) prohibited granting oil concessions to any foreigners. Britain withdrew troops but Russia didn’t. ultimately, the matter was referred to the UN Security Council (March 18, 1946). Therefore, Russia signed an agreement for oil concessions and then withdrew on 9 May 1946.

Oil Crisis: The question assumed crisis proportions in June 1948 when the AIOC announced that the royalty payment would remain the same as 1947 even if its net profits had increased from $26 million in 1947 to $52 million in 1948.

In 1947, the Iranian government received $19 million in royalty payment and taxes whereas the British Government received $56 million from dividends and taxes.

When the figures were published the Iranian people were agitated.

In 1948, the Iranian Government submitted a 25-point memorandum to the AIOC calling upon it to:

Increase the governments share of profit to 50%

Employ fewer foreigners and

Train more Iranians for technical and managerial position in the AIOC.

The two reached an agreement in 1949 known as ‘Supplementary Agreement’ (1949) which gave some concession to the Iranian Government. Unfortunately, the AIOC failed to keep its promises. The AIOC Annual Report of 1949 showed that Iran was given about $37 million in royalty payment and taxes whereas Britain received about $79 million from dividends and taxes.

Rise of Mussadiq: In 1950, the Iranian Majlis appointed an Oil Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Muhammad Mussadiq to deal with AIOC. Dr. Mussadiq was a distinguished lawyer known for his loyalty. There followed negotiations between the oil committee and the AIOC which were unsuccessful. Britain found it difficult to accept the fact that she was no longer an eminent world power. America tried to persuade Britain to accept some demands of the Iranian Oil Committee. However, the AIOC refused to act.

Nationalization of Oil Industry: In December 1950, the Oil Committee rejected the supplementary agreement on the ground that it did not safeguard Iranian rights and interests. Dr. Mussadiq moved a resolution in the Iranian Maajlis calling for – nationalization of the oil industry in Iran. The government opposed this resolution, declaring nationalization to be impracticable.

Four days later the Iranian Prime Minister Razmaia was murdered. With his murder opposition to Dr Mussadiq’s proposal of oil nationalization crumbled and the Majlis passed a bill nationalizing the oil industry in Iran.

In April 1951, Mussadiq became the new Prime Minister and in October the AIOC was ousted from Iran.

 

Post Nationalization developments: After rejecting the supplementary agreement even the oil concessions to Britain were rejected. The British Government proposed arbitration and referred the dispute to the International Court of Justice at Hague but Mussadiq refused to submit to the courts jurisdiction. He argued that the dispute was between the sovereign state of Iran and a private company.

Thereafter, the British Government showed its willingness to accept the nationalization of the AIOC in a modified form. Dr. Mussadiq was also willing to negotiate with the British Government since he won the main battle. In a series of negotiations each side believed that it possessed the stronger bargaining power to back up its legal position.

The AIOC believed that only they could operate the intricate oil industry, the Abadan refinery and provide the necessary capital. In the absence of oil royalty payment, the Iranian economy would face serious difficulties which would face serious difficulties which would force the government to come to terms with it. It further believed that the action of the Iranian government in nationalizing the AIOC was illegal and wrong as it contravened the 1933 agreement. To the Iranians this nationalization meant independence.

Dr. Mussadiq encouraged the Iranians to believe that income from oil royalty and profits would enable them to live in ease and comfort, but he failed to realize the complexities of the international oil industry, or the difficulties involved in selling Iranian oil on the world market without the cooperation of international oil companies. He believed that Britain and France required Iranian oil to sustain their economies and would come to terms with him. He also expected the US Government to support him.

Deadlock I the negotiations and the resultant crisis: Very soon the negotiations reached a deadlock as either side refused to make any concessions. By mid 1951 oil production was completely stopped and arbitration failed. Mussadiq refused to submit the issue either to the Inteirnational Court of Justice or the United Nations.

Britain and Western Europe adjusted themselves to do without Iranian oil support.

Under these circumstances the situation in Iran began to deteriorate. Loss of royalty and profits began to pinch, scarcity of foreign exchange and credit forced Iran to curtail her imports. The army was short on supplies and wealthy landlords were forced to curtail on spending and luxuries. Iranian nationalists were frustrated at the continuing deadlock.

Dr. Mussadiq became more autocratic and in July 1952 he demanded autocratic power for himself. He wanted to rule by personal decree, dissolve the Majlis and introduce a comprehensive reform program. He held a referendum to dissolve the Majlis and got a 99.93% vote in favor of dissolution.

On 12 August 1953, he dissolved the Majlis.

By this time, he had been isolated, and he lost all support except from the communists. On August 13, 1953, the King dismissed him and appointed General Zahedi as the new Prime Minister. Dr. Mussadiq was arrested, found guilty of attempted rebellion and sentenced to three years imprisonment.

With General Zahedi at the helm of affairs, the Iranian crisis was nearing a solution.

In September 1953, the United States government granted Iran an emergency loan of $45 million to settle temporary difficulties. The oil dispute was finally settled in February 1954, by a consortium of 8 major oil companies.

On August 5, 1954, the Consortium and the Iranian Government signed a formal agreement which formally settled the dispute. The agreement went as follows:

-       The Consortium would extract, refine and market oil for the National Iranian Oil Company (NICO).

-       The NICO would receive 50% of the profits.

-       The Iranian Government would pay $70 million as compensation for nationalizing the AIOC.

-       In 1956, the NIOC took over the Russian oil concessions and thereby acquired full control over Iranian oil resources. In 1965, was formed the National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC), to exploit and utilize the seemingly limitless natural gas deposits in Southern Iran. In 1966, the royalty and profit income of Iran stood at $500 million.

Dr. Mussadique set an example for others to be cautions and the foreign companies became more reasonable, and therefore his cause was never lost. This episode in Oil Politics has been referred to as ‘an important reminder of strength’.

OIL POLITICS IN IRAN

Oil has been and remains till today a major asset of West Asia. The history of oil politics in West Asia originated in a humble village with ethe earliest discovery of Arabian Oil in 1859 and it reached a landmark in 1960 with the formation of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

Even in the period prior to 1960, oil was basic to the life of many Arab countries as well as Iran. In the early twentieth century they had given concessions to search for oil. Once oil was discovered they were dependent on foreigners for the investment as well as the technology to extract, refine and sell the oil. These gigantic companies manipulated oil prices in a manner beyond the control of individual producing state to exercise some authority over the international company. A country could either nationalize the oil company as Iran did in 1951 or they could organize an international cartel to protect their interests.

This is what happened I 1960 when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was born. OPEC was the result of a series of events and forces in which both the oil companies and oil producing countries were involved.

Although oil is the major asset of West Asia, yet not all of this region is oil rich. A majority of West Asian countries produce no oil at all or only small quantities of it. Hence there is a wide disparity of income between the nations of West Asia. The main oil producing countries of the region are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, some of the members of United Arab Emirates and Oman. Except for Iran, they are all Arab Nations.

Oil had been discovered in Persia in 1908. The concession to extract it was secured by the British company named the Anglo Persian Oil Company (APOC). Prior to 1933, the fluctuations in the amount received from year to year left the finances of Iran at the mercy of the oil company. Besides, Iran’s share from the oil profits was a miserable 16%. In 1933, Reza Shah secured better financial terms and a reduction of the concession area by half of the company whose name was now changed to Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). In Iraq oil was discovered before World War I. The Ottoman Government had granted the oil rights to two German concerns. At the end of World War I, Iraq came under British control. Iraq had oil field in Mosul region in the North. Later oil was discovered in the Baghdad province and around Basrah in the South. These were exploited by the Iraq Petroleum company.

The Arabian peninsula is extremely rich in oil deposits. In Saudi Arabia oil was discovered in 1938 by the California Standard Oil Company (CASCO), whose name was later changed to the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). It was supposed to have anywhere between 1/3^rd to 1/4^th of the worlds oil reserve. Saudi Arabia grew rich very rapidly. Oil was discovered in Bahrain (1932) and a large refinery was build by a British company to exploit it. Oil was found in Oman in 1937 but production began only in 1967. In Qatar, the Sheikh granted the oil concessions to the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1935 but oil began to flow only after World War II. In 1934, the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), a British cooperation received a concession for the entire 5,800 sq miles of the state. Oil was found in 1938 through commercial production was stalled during World War II and did not commence till 1946. Of the seven petisheikhdom that had been under British production, and which formed the United Arab Emirates in 1968, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Dubai are oil producing.

By mid-1940, the oil resources of the Arab world and Iran had become the most important reason for the strategic value of this region to Western companies which made huge profits 80-90% of the oil used in Western Europe flows from this region. In the year 1960, Iran and the Arab world were producing about 25% of the world’s output and held 2/3^rd of its reserves. In the period between the end of World War II and 1960 when OPEC was formed voices began to be raised in this region against the huge profits being made by the International Companies at the expense of oil producing countries. Venezuela played an important role in shaping the oil policies of the oil producing countries. In 1948, a law was passed which called for a 50-50 profit split between the Oil Company and Venezuela. The same principle was gradually adopted in West Asian Countries except Iran.

The non-acceptance of the principle in Iran led to one of the gravest crisis of the oil industry. Since 1941, when British troops have invaded the country, Iran had a deep sense of animosity towards it. Realizing this the Anglo Iranian Oil Company opened in 1948 had started preliminary discussion with the government about profit split. When the government demanded that profit split on the 50-50 principle should apply to all company’s profit, the company refused. In July 1949, the company offered the Iranian government that the shares of profit should not fall below 4 million pounds a year. this was not acceptable to the Iranian government.

However, it was too late. By then the bill had been passed and received royal assent for the nationalization of oil company.

The act of nationalization of oil company in Iran in 1951 created more problems that it solved. This was the oil crisis of 1951-53. The oil activities were completely crippled when the Prime Minister Dr Moussadique insisted that the British Personnel employed by the Company should either work for him or leave the country. The staff accepted to leave. Iranians were not available to run the industry. The chaos was total and complete. Not only did Iran cease to export oil but they had to even import it for their own use. The Anglo Iranian Oil Company which had half the share in the Kuwait Oil Company expanded its activities in Kuwait. As a result, the oil prices in Iran acted as a catalyst for oil production in Kuwait.

A military coup led by General Zahedi in 1953 removed Prime Minister Mossadique from power and re-installed Shah Muhammed Reza Shah. A new consortium of international companies was formed to revenue the Iranian oil industry. Though oil was the property of National Iranian Oil Company, the international consortium produced the oil. The National Iranian Oil Company was the first of the (inter)national oil companies.

In order to appreciate the logic of OPEC, oil relations in West Asia between the oil producing countries and the oil companies that existed till 1960 have to be studied. The terms of the oil concessions awarded to the companies often constituted the source of friction, dispute and misunderstanding between the two parties. Most o fhte concessions were of a long duration. Also, the areas covered by these concessions were vast. For e.g., they covered almost all territories of Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar. In some other countries they covered a majority of the area.

The companies never surrendered the area not explored by them. Therefore, on many occasions, the host government undertook to persuade or pressurize the companies to do so. Obviously, this created resentment between the two. There was also a phenomenal increase in the demand for oil and hence its production. Production had increased in the Middle East from 11 million tons in 1935 to 257 million tons in 1960.

The host countries felt that they did not have sufficient control over the activities of oil companies. This was made clear when the oil companies unilaterally reduced the oil prices first in 1959 and then again in August 1960. Arab League in 1951 had set up an Oil Experts Committee and subsequently a decision was taken in 1954 to make a permanent organization to look into oil affairs. An Arab Oil Congress was held in 1949 and 1951. It was within the Arab League that most of the ideas of Arab policies for oil took shape. With the Arab League taking interest in oil, oil was politicized, and the stage was set for OPEC.

In September 1960, Iraqi government convened a conference of oil producing countries at Baghdad. It was at this conference that OPEC was born. Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, were the founder members of OPEC. Others soon joined. OPEC consists of seven Arab states – Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Abu Dhabi, Qatar, Libya and Algeria. The six non-Arab states are Iran, Venezuela, Indonesia, Nigeria, Ecuador and Gabon. In 1967 (OAPEC) i.e., Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries was also formed.

The aims of OPEC were to establish a uniform policy, ironing out differences among various producing countries with respect to issues like price, royalty, production. The first task OPEC set for itself was to stabilize oil prices and maintain them steady and free from all unnecessary fluctuation.

Since 1973, OPEC has steadily raised the price of oil, thus holding the rest of the world to ransom. The role of Saudi Arabia had been crucial since it is the largest producer. Oil has provided the Arab states with a powerful weapon which can be used.

Thus during the Arab Israeli War of 1973, oil was employed for political gains. The Arab countries of OPEC placed an embargo of supplies to USA. The output of oil and prices automatically jumped. OPEC countries had thus emerged as the economic power to reckon with.

The West Asian countries have now nationalized their oil industries. For e.g., Iraq did so in 1972 and Kuwait in 1975.

Oil politics continue to be dominant in West Asia. The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in August 1990 and the Gulf War of Jan-Feb 1991 form part of the continuing story of oil politics in this region.

NATIONALISM

 Nationalism is a people’s sense of belong together as a nation. It also includes feelings such as loyalty to the nation, pride in its culture and history and – in many cases – a desire for national independence.

Since the late 1700s, nationalism has become an important force in international relations. Nationalistic feelings, particularly the desire of each country to govern itself, have helped change the map of Europe several times since the 1800s. Since the late 1940s, nationalism has also transformed Africa and Asia.

Nationalism is widespread today, but it once did not even exist. People have not always had a sense of nationhood. Early people felt that they belonged to cities or tribes. During the Middle Ages, people were loyal to a number of groups and rulers. For e.g., a French citizen might have owed loyalty to the Duke of Burgundy, the King of France, the Holy roman Emperor and the Pope.

The rise of nationalism occurred along with the development of a political unit called the nation-state.

A nation is a group of people who share a common culture, history or language and have a feeling of national unity.

A state is an area of land whose people have an independent government.

A Nation-state exists if a nation and a state have the same boundaries.

Nation-states began to develop during the late Middle Ages. Travel and communication improved and as a result, people became increasingly aware of the part of their country that lay outside their own community. Loyalty to local and religious leaders began to weaken, and allegiance to Kings grew stronger. By the 1700s, England, France, Spain and several other countries had become nation-states.

Other peoples developed a sense of nationhood by early 1800s. but most had not become nation-states. Many people believed that a national group had the right to form its own state. This belief, known as the doctrine of national self-determination, caused many nationalistic revolutions in Europe. For e.g., Greece won independence from Turkey in 1829, and Belgium became independent of Netherlands in 1830.

Different forms of Nationalism later developed in various parts of the world. In the United States, the spirit of nationalism expressed itself in rapid westward expansion during the 1800s. Many Americans became convinced that their nation had a manifest destiny – that is, a clear mission to take over all of North America.

In Western Europe, new feelings of nationalism united the Italians and then the Germans, both of whom were still divided into many states. Each of these peoples combined to form one country out of the states. The unification of Italy was completed in 1870 and Germany became a nation-state in 1871.

In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, national groups sought to create smaller states out of the huge Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires. These demands for national self-determination helped cause World War I (1914-1918) and broke oup the empires after the war.

During the 1930s two dictators- Adolf Hitler of Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy – used nationalism in demanding extreme loyalty from their people. They promoted integral nationalism, the belief that a certain nationality was superior to all others. This idea also placed strict limits on who could claim that nationality. In support of integral nationalism, the Nazis killed millions of Jews and other people whom they considered inferior human beings. Germany and Italy also set out to conquer the world. Their actions helped bring on World War II (1939-1945).

After World War II, Nationalism led many African and Asian colonies to demand self-government. India and Pakistan won independence from Great Britain in 1947. The next year, a nationalistic movement called Zionism resulted in the establishment of Israel.

By the 1970’s more than 80 other nations had become newly independent. Many of them lacked the long history of shared experiences that had produced nationalism in Europe. But their leaders encouraged nationalism to help develop national unity.

Effects of nationalism can be both good and bad. Nationalism gives people a sense of belonging and pride, and a willingness to make sacrifices for their country. They also take a greater interest in their nation’s achievements in such fields as sports, literature and music.

But nationalism also produces rivalry and tension between nations. Desires for national glory and military conquest may lead to war. Extreme nationalism may result in racial hatred and in persecution of minority groups.

TYPES OF LISTENING

Listening is the conscious processing of the auditory stimuli that have been perceived through hearing.

Listening differs from obeying. Parents may commonly conflate the two, by telling a disobedient child that he "didn't listen to me". However, a person who receives and understands information or an instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker, even though the result is not what the speaker wanted.

TYPES OF LISTENING

1. DISCRIMINATIVE LISTENING :

Discriminative listening is the type of listening, whereby the difference between difference sounds is identified. 

If listener cannot hear differences, then they cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed by such differences.

People learn to discriminate between sounds within their own language early, and later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other languages. This is one reason why a person from one country finds it difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish the subtle sounds that are required in that language.

Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in another person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions the other person is experiencing.

Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much through body language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.

 

2. COMPREHENSION LISTENING :

This listening is to make sense of the sounds . To comprehend the meaning requires first having a lexicon of words at our fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax by which we can understand what others are saying.

The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication, and an understanding of body language helps us understand what the other person is really meaning.

In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a long spiel.

Comprehension listening is also known  as content listening, informative listening and full listening.

3. CRITICAL LISTENING :

Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion about what is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and weaknesses, agreement and approval.

This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the listener analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and rules, whilst simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the speaker.

 

4. BIASED LISTENING :

Biased listening happens when the person hears only what they want to hear, typically misinterpreting what the other person says based on the stereotypes and other biases that they have. Such biased listening is often very evaluative in nature.

 

5. EVALUATIVE LISTENING :

In evaluative listening, or critical listening, listener make judgments about what the other person is saying. They seek to assess the truth of what is being said and also judge what they say against our values, assessing them as good or bad, worthy or unworthy.

Evaluative listening is particularly pertinent when the other person is trying to persuade , perhaps to change the behavior and maybe even to change the beliefs. 

Within this, person also discriminate between subtleties of language and comprehend the inner meaning of what is said. 

Typically also we weigh up the pros and cons of an argument, determining whether it makes sense logically as well as whether it is helpful to us.

Evaluative listening is also called critical, judgmental or interpretive listening.

 

6. APPRECIATIVE LISTENING : 

In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate, for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

 

7 .SYMPATHETIC LISTENING :

In sympathetic listening we care about the other person and show this concern in the way we pay close attention and express our sorrow for their ills and happiness at their joys.

 

8. EMPATHETIC LISTENING :

When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are feeling.

In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we also need to demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them, asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.

 

9. THERAPEUTIC LISTENING

In therapeutic listening, the listener has a purpose of not only empathizing with the speaker but also to use this deep connection in order to help the speaker understand, change or develop in some way.

This not only happens when you go to see a therapist but also in many social situations, where friends and family seek to both diagnose problems from listening and also to help the speaker cure themselves, perhaps by some cathartic process. This also happens in work situations, where managers, HR people, trainers and coaches seek to help employees learn and develop.

 

10 .DIALOGIC LISTENING :

The word 'dialogue' stems from the Greek words 'dia', meaning 'through' and 'logos' meaning 'words'. Thus dialogic listening mean learning through conversation and an engaged interchange of ideas and information in which we actively seek to learn more about the person and how they think.

Dialogic listening is sometimes known as 'relational listening'.

 

11. RELATIONSHIP LISTENING :

Sometimes the most important factor in listening is in order to develop or sustain a relationship. This is why lovers talk for hours and attend closely to what each other has to say when the same words from someone else would seem to be rather boring.

Watch the video by clicking the link: TYPES OF LISTENING

Relationship listening is also important in areas such as negotiation and sales, where it is helpful if the other person likes you and trusts you.

COLONEL NASSER – ROLE IN THE GROWTH OF ARAB NATIONALISM

‘No other Arab leader in modern times has succeeded in winning the sometimes-hysterical support of Arab masses throughout the Middle East as did Nasser’ – Encyclopedia Britannica.

Early life: Nasser was born on 15 January 1918. From an early age he took part in many anti-British street demonstrations. He later served in the Egyptian army where he met like-minded men, sharing in his ideal to oust the British and Egyptian royal family. He began a secret revolutionary organization ‘the Free Officers’ where he was chosen as the President of the Republic.

In 1936, the King of Egypt, Fahd died and was succeeded by his sixteen year old son Farouk who ruled over Egypt till 1952. King Farouk was the most unpopular king who was known for his extravagant style of living. Due to the inefficiency of the King, the officers of the administration too became corrupt. His foreign policy was also not liked by the people, hence they revolted against him. In order to save himself, King Farouk tried to pacify his people by condemning the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. But even this did not save the King because in 1952, the people destroyed foreign property on a massive scale. This happened in the month of Jan 1952. In the month of July 1952, Bugadur General Mohammed Naquib organized a coup-d-etat, a military officer of Egyptian army by the name of Lieutenant Colonel Gamel Abdul Nasser. Colonel Nasser set aside General Naquib in 1954 and himself became the military dictator of Egypt. He had to face a number of problems.

In the first Arab Israeli War (1948), Nasser and a few companions were disillusioned with the dishonest communiques the government had issued on the progress of the battle, the corruption in the medical supplies and the uselessness of their equipment. It became increasingly obvious to Nasser and the office at that time that the British had to be removed and the entire system of government had to be changed.

On 23 July 1952, Nasser and a few officers staged an almost bloodless revolution, ousting the monarchy. The country was taken over by Nasser with General Mohammed Naquib as the puppet head of the State. But in the spring of 1954, Naquib and Nasser began to argue with each other, and the former was deposed and placed under house arrest. Nasser now emerged from the shadows and named himself Prime Minister.

Achievements: His achievements are as under:

First Agrarian Reform Law of 1954: In order to improve the agricultural output and to bring economic change int eh agrarian field Colonel Nasser passed the agrarian reform law. As per the law the peasants were to keep a fixed amount of land. The excess land was taken over by the government by giving compensation to the owner. The land was leased to the actual cultivators for a period of minimum three years. The farm laborers were given the right of farming unions. A committee was appointed for fixing daily wages of farm laborers. Moreover, agricultural cooperatives were set up for the benefit of the owners. The agrarian reform of Colonel Nasser was a grand success. It was executed by a High Committee for Agriculture independent from governmental interference.

Aswan Dam Issue: Western imperialist powers did not like to see the popularity of Colonel Nasser over the Aswan Dam Issue. President Colonel Nasser wanted to construct a dam on the river Nile. Britain and United States of America had agreed to help him by giving financial aid. The dam was to provide irrigational facility, generate electricity and control flood. However, Great Britain and France looked into the construction of the dam as an instrument of Arab attack on Israel. But in reality, they did not like the growing friendship of Egypt with Soviet Russia. Hence, they refused to give financial aid. This step did not bring Nasser to their terms. He got the money from USSR and constructed the dam. The Arabs appreciated him.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal: Colonel Nasser retaliated to the move of USA and Britain by proclaiming the nationalization of Suez Canal in 1956. He told the world that the Aswan Dam would not be constructed out of the profits which would come by the nationalization of Suez Canal. The move of Colonel Nasser shocked USA and Britain because of two reasons. Firstly, the Suez Canal had strategic importance. Secondly, both the nations had heavily invested in the shares of the Suez Canal. John Foster Dulles, an advocate of Dollar Imperialism in Afro Asian countries tried to mediate by proposing for the internationalization of the Canal at the London Conference. USA, Britain, and France formed the Canal’s Users Association. It was but natural for Colonel Nasser to get angry. He remained firm and started operating the canal independently in September 1956. The firm determination of Nasser against the great western power further added to his prestige and popularity.

Arab Israel War or Egypt Israel war of 1956: In order to teach Colonel Nasser a lesson, Great Britain and France instigated Israel against Egypt and the result was the Egypt Israel War of 1956. Great Britain and France did not consult President Eisenhower of America before taking such a step. The combined armies of Israel, France and Britain succeeded in conquering the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, Port Said and a portion of the Suez Canal was also captured by Anglo French Israel action and threatened Egypt. USA got alarmed as this could give Soviet Russia a chance to penetrate into West Asia. Therefore, fear of spread of communism in West Asia, compelled America to force Great Britain and France through the UN organization. It demanded immediate ceasefire in Egypt. Thus, it was USA and USSR intervention which forced the UN General Assembly to order for the immediate restoration of peace. England and France immediately withdrew and the war was over. The event was of great significance in the sense that even Western powers like Britain and France were unable to defeat Egypt. Moreover, they lost the chance to have their say in West Asia. For Egypt, it was triumph of Arab Nationalism.

Establishment of United Arab Republic (UAR): The strong, firm, and bold step of Colonel Nasser against the great western powers made the whole Arab world look at him as a leader. The defeat at the hands of Israel made them seek a personality of great leadership and organization who could create unity among the Arabs. Hence, when they found such a person in Colonel Nasser, they supported him. The President of Syria proposed a union of Syria and Egypt. The willingness of colonel Nasser to have such a union led to the establishment of the United Arab Republic on 1 November 1958. Nasser himself became the President of UAR with Cairo as his headquarters. Thus, he became the leader of the Arab world for championing the cause of Arab Nationalism.

Thus Colonel Nasser achieved a lot during his period. He boosted Arab Nationalism and enabled Egypt to witness economic and political soundness. His land reforms gave the landless land. Industrialization started and the Western Imperialist forces were cut to size. Nasser followed the policy of non-alignment which also brought fame to him from the third world. He became so popular among the people that they even started worshiping him. Nasserism as a cult grew.

However, Colonel Nasser was not successful in all his efforts. Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq did not like his stand. Syria also developed differences with Egypt due to which United Arab Republic broke down in 1961. Colonel Nasser died in 1970.