ROLE OF MEDIA DURING THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The First World War was one of the first demonstrations of the power and influence of news media. This was the first major war fought due to the nationalistic fervor of the people and it was not just because of the whims of rulers. This popular desire to wage war and gain glory was mostly the result of the growing influences of the newspapers. Though television was not yet invented and radio was in its infancy, newspapers and magazines were widely read and shaped public opinion. By their reporting of news and their analysis of the global situation they played a major part in convincing the public to go to war. And later by their coverage of the events of the war and heroism of the soldiers convinced the people to continue to fight it to a favorable conclusion. The leading newspapers of England such as The London Times, The Guardian, The Morning Post and The Telegraph, American newspapers such as The New York Times, The Washington Post, and the Indian newspaper The Times of India etc. sent war correspondents to the battle fronts in order to report the events on a day-to-day basis. These war correspondents did a commendable job in sending dispatches from the fronts about the progress of the war, the casualties and damages caused, about the plight of the soldiers and the civilians. Reuters was the most prominent news agency which gave regular updates on the war. The First World War saw the beginnings of several types of media, which were to rise in prominence in the future. For instance the war propaganda by means of dropping leaflets to soldiers and civilians from the air started in the First World War mainly because this was the first major war where air planes were used on a large scale. Other types on media including plays such as Opera, which were very popular at that time also played a significant role in influencing public sentiments. Later many films were made on the war theme. Thus the First World War saw the emergence of several media and the rise in the prominence of others and particularly showcased the newfound importance and influence of the news media.

SOCIAL INTERACTION (SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM)

Social Interaction / Symbolic Interactionism is a sociological perspective that developed around mid twentieth century and continuses to influence social psychology. Symbolic Interaction was invented by George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley. Symbolic Interactionism sees people as active in shaping their world, rather than as entities who are acted upon by society. Reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others. Eachof us learn to play many different social roles through our interaction with others. Thus our actions are ‘conditioned’ by others and at the same time we also affect their actions. The idea is not to manipulate or dominate each other buy to create and sustain a social unit which provides members rewards on performing social roles. We learn our social roles by interacting with others and through our daily life experiences. We internalize the rules inherent in the situations and act accordingly. These roles provide us with a powerful means of controlling our actions and in time we learn to be identified by our actions. Unlike animals who are conditioned to respond to certain stimuli, human beings are more conscious about stimuli and are able to plan responses. Both individuals and society cannot be separated far from each other for two reasons. One, being that they are both created through social interaction, and two, one cannot be understood without the other. Behavior is not defined by forces from the environment or inner forces such as drives, or instincts, but rather by a reflective, socially understood meaning of both the internal and external incentives that are currently presented. Three basic premises of the perspective: • "Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things." - individuals behave towards objects and others based on the personal meanings that the individual has already given these items. • "The meaning of such things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others and the society." – social interaction with other humans. • "These meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretative process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters."- We have the ability to name things and designate objects or actions to a certain idea or phenomenon. Role-taking is a part of our lives at an early age. Playing house and pretending to be someone else are examples of this phenomena. Charles Horton Cooley, a symbolic interactionist describes the process by which the sense of self develops by the ‘looking-glass self’ which has three elements: 1. We imagine how we appear to people around us – e.g. tall / stout / slim 2. We interpret others’ reactions e.g. Do they like / dislike us for the way we are 3. We develop a self concept – we create a social mirror for ourselves with a positive or a negative self-concept.

WORLD WAR II – EFFECTS

The Second World War was one of the most disastrous events in the history of modern world. An important feature of this war was the use of destructive atom bombs. It was fought in four continents, two oceans and also in the air.

1. Inestimable destruction – The Second World War caused unprecedented destruction of life and property. It claimed the lives of about a crore and a half people while about four and a half crore people were permanently disabled. The loss of property was incalculable. The whole world suffered from the ravages of the war. Millions of people were uprooted from their homes and became refugees.

 

2. Moral degradation of man – the Nazi, Fascist and Japanese armies committed atrocities on soldiers and civilians. Destructive atomic weapons were used by the major powers. These are the examples of mans barbaric and savage acts showing moral degradation of man.

 

3. Second – rate powers after the war – The other European and Asian powers such as England, France, china and Japan became weak and were forced to become the camp followers of the two great powers, the United States or Soviet Russia. England and France were confronted with various domestic problems. Both of them could no longer hold on to their colonies. Their colonies suffered under the pressure of the war. The war torn Europe depended heavily on American aid and investment for economic recovery. China, during and after the communist revolution had to depend on soviet Russia for financial and other material assistance. This showed that these countries were drifting to second – rate power and camp followers of either the United States or Soviet Russia.

 

4. Rise of USA and USSR as super powers – the contributions of USA and USSR to the defeat of the Axis powers were the largest. It was after America’s entry into the war in December 1941 and the defeat of the Nazi army by the Soviet army in February 1943 that the Allies emerged more powerful and finally succeeded in crushing the Nazis and fascist powers. This war made USA and USSR the two greatest powers of the world.

 

5. Destruction of the Axis powers – Germany, Italy and Japan who formed the axis were badly defeated. In Germany, the Nazi leaders were arrested and tried and Germany was partitioned into four zones under USA, USSR, England and France and remained under foreign military power.

Italy was also defeated and her empire was broken. Italy surrendered all her colonies and was forced to pay heavy war damages.

Japan surrendered and was put under the Far Eastern Commission with Gen. Mac Arthur as the Supreme Commander. Her army was disbanded and she was demilitarized.

6. Opportunities for subject people (Decolonization) – the Second World War had changed the power and position of different European powers. England and France lost their power to USA and USSR. At the same time it had also given rise to the spirit of nationalism in subject nations and colonies in Asia and Africa who started fighting for their independence from colonial rule. This led to the beginning of decolonization.

 

7. Formation of the United Nations Organization – The massive destruction caused by the Second World War made the world leaders realize the importance to preserve peace and harmony in the world. The League of Nations, which had proved ineffective, was replaced by a more dynamic global organization called the UNO. A number of other regional organization were also set up e.g. the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the Warsaw Pact, etc.

 

8. Beginning of cold war – the rise of USA and USSR as super powers resulted in a new ideological conflict between the two power blocs, which created lot of international tension and suspicion and brought the world on the brink of another catastrophic war. The USA was the champion of democracy while USSR championed communism. The two super powers vied with each other to spread their influence and thus the world was again divided into two camps. This international tension is referred to as the Cold War, which finally ended with the collapse of the Berlin war and the disintegration of the Soviet Union in the early 1990s.

WORLD WAR II - Causes

WORLD WAR II

Causes 

1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles – Germany was the most discontented and angry nation due to the imposition of the Treaty of Versailles on her. It was a dictated treaty that humiliated her. It was vindictive and unjust. By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost territories in Europe. Her overseas colonies were taken away and her military strength was reduced to minimal. Germany was blamed for the war and asked to pay a huge indemnity, which was beyond her capacity. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles created hatred among the Germans against the allied powers and she wanted to take revenge. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles contained in itself the seed of the Second World War.

 

2. Aggressive nationalism and Imperialism – formed an important factor in creating international tension and rivalry. England, France and other countries, which were talking about international peace and understanding, had big empires. Germany, Italy and Japan got ready for war and imperialist expansion, as they also wanted big empires and be on par with their rivals. Hitler, Mussolini and Tojo, by creating a strong spirit of aggressive nationalism and militant imperialism, paved the way for the Second World War.

 

3. Problem of National Minorities – The causes of the Second World War related to the failure of the peace terms of 1919-1920. By annexing territories from the defeated nations, the peacemakers sowed the seeds of bitterness and conflict. The population was dissatisfied, and this was exploited by dictators.

 

4. Failure of Democracy and rise of Dictatorship – Following the First World War, democratic governments were established in different European countries, especially Italy and Germany. However, these democratic governments failed to solve political, economic and social problems in their respective countries. The political instability and corruption among the politicians led to the collapse of democratic governments and led to the rise of dictatorship. The dictators created confidence and hope among the people and provided political stability. However, the rise of dictatorship proved to be dangerous to world peace.

 

5. Failure of the League of Nations – Another important cause of the Second World War was the miserable failure of the League of Nations in its primary duty of preventing the race for armaments and punishing nations, which committed acts of aggression. The league was dominated by the big imperialist powers who were selfish, unfair and corrupt.

 

6. Failure to achieve disarmament – Though Germany was disarmed after the First World War, the victorious allies never attempted to limit their own armaments. A number of attempts were made within and outside the League of Nations to arrive at some settlement regarding disarmament. Disarmament conferences were held at Washington and London at different times, but these did not produce any success. Hitler openly resorted to the rearmament of Germany in violation of the terms of the peace treaty. Other nations also resorted to armament race. The failure to achieve disarmament resulted in tension among the nations and naturally endangered world peace.

 

7. Two armed camps – The emergence of two armed camps in the world after 1937 greatly contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. With the collapse of collective security under the League of Nations various countries became convinced that they should form their own arrangement for their security and national interest. The Fascist dictatorial powers who had withdrawn from the League of Nations, Italy, Germany and Japan formed the Rome Berlin-Tokyo axis. On the other hand England and France drew closer and cemented their alliance to face the possible threat of the Fascist powers. The existence of the two rival armed camps with differing ideologies and programs brought the world to the brink of war.

 

8. Immediate cause – Invasion of Poland by Germany – The immediate cause of the Second World War was the invasion of Poland by Germany. When Poland refused to concede German demands she was attacked by the German troops on 1st September 1939. The German invasion of Poland drew England and France into the conflict on 3rd September 1939, as both these countries had guaranteed the territorial integrity of Poland. Thus, began the Second World War.

 

World War I Consequences/Results

The world war had far reaching consequences on the subsequent history of Europe in particular and the world in general. It produced disastrous consequences in the field of politics, economy and society. The chief results of the world war are as follows:

Destruction of human life and property: The First World War caused immeasurable destruction. Nearly ten million soldiers died as a result of war – far more than had died in all the wars during the previous years. About 21 million men were wounded. No one knows how many people died of disease, starvation and other war related diseases.

Property was damaged. Armies destroyed farms and villages as they passed through them. The war resulted in destruction of factories, bridges and railroad tracks. Artillery shells, trenches and chemicals made the land barren along the western front. Wars shattered the economies of many countries.

Change in world map – The war and the subsequent peace treaties altered the political map of the world particularly Europe. The ruling dynasties perished. The end of the war saw the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the emergence of Austria Hungary as independent states, and the rise of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland as independent states.

End of European Supremacy and rise of USA as a superpower – After the war England and France lost their supremacy in the world. United States emerged as a great economic and military power. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution during the war period saw the rise of the Soviet Union as a major world power.

Freedom movements in Asia and Africa – The First World War encouraged the people of Asia and Africa, struggling under European imperialism. In many of the Asian countries such as India, national movements were already in progress. The participation of Asian and African soldiers in the battles helped in arousing the people of Asia and Africa to fight for their freedom.

 

Failure of peace treaties – The peace treaties contained harsh and unjust provisions, which did not help in bringing about peace, but sowed the seeds of future conflicts. The rise of Nazism in Germany can be attributed to this to a large extent. Similarly victorious countries also felt cheated because all their hopes had not been fulfilled.

Birth of League of Nations – The League of Nations was an international organization, which aimed at the preservation of peace and security, peaceful settlement of international conflicts, and bound its members ‘not to resort to war’. Though all the objectives could not be achieved, the league marked the beginning of peace movements in the twentieth century.

WORLD WAR I

A great war or a great revolution cannot begin suddenly. Neither of them begins due to one cause. It is the result of many causes. All these causes are closely connected with one another. So was the case with World War I.

Causes

Nationalism – An important cause of the war was nationalism. Nationalism began in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the beginning the movement of nationalism was not harmful. Its aim was the boundaries of nationalities and the boundaries of state should be the same. The congress of Vienna did not care for the feeling of nationalism. So there were national risings in many countries of Europe. The people there wanted the right of self – determinism. By the end of the 19th century, nationalism took a new shape. It became aggressive. All the nations began to give importance to themselves. Their patriotism became intolerant. The people of one country began to be hated by those of the other. This hatred was responsible for the war.

Imperialism – The countries of the west wanted to expand their colonies to get raw materials for their industries as well as markets for their finished goods. The race for colonies in Asia and Africa led to rivalries among nations. For e.g. England and France had the largest number of colonies.

Armaments – Some of the countries of Europe had entered into rivalry for colonies. As a result they had to prepare themselves to fight against others. So the great powers of Europe prepared themselves for war. Huge sums of money began to be spent on armaments and army. Countries thus prepared for war do not make concessions to others. The keenest rivalry was between Germany and France. The armament makers made good money, so they fanned the flame of rivalry. Thus, the period from 1870-1913 was a period of ‘armed peace’. In such a period there could be no hope of security. Even a very slight cause was enough to plunge the world into war.

Secret diplomacy – Secret diplomacy was also a cause of the war. Germany, Austria and Italy had formed the triple Alliance. England, France and Russia had formed the triple Entente. Thus, Europe was divided into two ‘armed camps’. These camps grew suspicious of each other.

Other causes – There were also many other causes of the war. There were 4 important international events. Two of these happened in Morocco between Germany and France. The other two happened in the Balkan region between Russia and Austria Hungary. Fortunately none of these happenings led to war. But they did increase the tension among the nations.

Immediate cause – Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo in Bosnia. The suspects were Serbs, so Austria held Serbia responsible for the murder. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. She wanted Serbia to accept the ultimatum within forty-eight hours.

The break out of the war – Serbia accepted many demands of Austria. England, France and Russia tried to induce Austria. Their efforts proved useless. Austria did not feel satisfied. On July 8, 1914, Austria declared war upon Serbia. Soon the flames of war spread far and wide. It assumed the form of a world war. The war came to an end on November 11, 1918, when an armistice was concluded. It was followed by the Paris Peace Conference.

CULTURE AND CULTURAL STUDIES

What is culture?

There is a general agreement that culture is learnt, that it allows man to adapt himself to natural and social setting, that it is greatly variable, that it is manifested in institutions, thought patterns and material objects. One of the best early definition was given by E.B. Tylor who described culture as ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morale, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.

Culture is universal in man’s experience, yet each local or regional manifestation of it is unique. Culture is stable, yet it is also dynamic. Culture fills and determines the course of our lives, yet rarely intrudes into conscious thought.

Some of the main features of culture are as follows:

• Culture is learnt behavior as opposed to the natural one. It is acquired behavior which one learns by virtue of being a member of society.
• Culture is social, not an individual heritage of man. Culture refers to the ways common to all the members of a group.
• Culture differs from society to society and thus it is unique.
• Culture provides members of a group an identity, it creates a sense of belongingness. It gives one a sense of pride.
• Culture is a social heritage of man. This implies that culture is inevitably linked with the past.
• Human beings are continuously refining and polishing their behavior of action and thought. Culture is therefore the embodiment of refinement.
• Culture tends to be patterned as it involves similar approved behavior. E.g. religious practices and customs of a particular group.
• Culture is integrated as it has values and goals which give a sense of unity.
• Culture can be institutionalized and can exist and represent itself in a set of institutions. E.g. the institution of marriage or family.
• Culture is super-organic. People and societies may cease to exist but culture continues to survive.
• Culture is symbolic. It has a range of symbols which are both material and non-material. E.g. Indian woment wear a ‘mangalsutra’ and ‘sindoor’ which indicates that they are married.
• Culture has the ability to innovate, and this is seen through evolution of different forms of music, dance, etc.

Culture is not innate. Traits learnt through civilization, habits and thoughts are what is called culture. Culture is communicated from one generation to the next. Every individual takes part in the transmission and communication of culture but culture is social rather than individual. Man cannot create or generate while existing apart from the group. Culture fulfils those ethical and social needs which are ends in themselves.

Culture emphasise the human component of accumulated resources, immaterial as well as material which the people inherit, employ, transmute, add to structure and cultural pattern cannot exist independently of one another in human society. Society and culture are mutually dependant and social relations are carried or exemplified only in cultural behavior.

Radcliff Brown talked of culture as ‘the process by which a person acquires from contact with other persons or from such things as books or works of art, knowledge, skill, ideas, beliefs, tastes, sentiments’.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

According to George Peter Murdock, culture has the following characteristics:

• The Learned Quality – Man is not born with culture hence it is a learned process and man moulds himself according to his environment
• The transmitted quality – Culture is transmitted from person to person. The individual is moulded according to his family and society of which he is a member.
• The social quality – Each society has culture. Each member of the society is depended on the other and each expects from the other, this expectation binds the society.
• The quality of Idealism – Culture is based on some ideals and each generation acquires it from its predecessors and each member has to follow it.
• Gratifying quality – Man as a member of the society has various needs and these needs are satisfied by the culture.
• The adapted and integrated quality – Each culture tries to adopt the qualities from outside its own environment. The contact of two or more cultures takes place and this interaction lends the adaptive quality to the culture. The different aspects of culture join hands to form a whole integrated culture.
• Culture is always idealized – Human beings are continuously refining and polishing their behavior, action and thought, culture stands for ideals and norms of human behavior.
• Culture meets the recurring demands of mankind – Culture meets the various recurring demands of mankind e.g. Demand of reproduction, nursing an infant to maturity, marriage and finally disposal of the dead, all these demands are met by culture from generation to generation. Culture points out the smooth way to meet the perpetual demands of individuals.

CULTURAL STUDIES

Man in order to live must eat – Karl Marx

Diversity is the unique feature of the human community. E.g. In the case of transportation Arabs use camels as it is easy to cross the sandy desert. In the case of Eskimos they use sledges pulled by huskies. Infrastructure may be different, but the purpose is the same i.e. transportation.

Culture is the way you adapt yourself in a society / natural environment. Anthropology is the study of human adaptation in their natural environment.

Culture studies focuses on particular aspects of culture not only on the whole range of culture i.e. pop culture or folk culture reflected in the lives and interests and behavior patterns of the masses of people like entertainment, folk arts, folk theatre, folklore which means a distinction is drawn between high culture and popular culture. Culture studies emphasizes that culture should be seen, examined and analyzed in relation to social structure and when we speak of social structure we also speak of relation of power. Culture becomes a field where the dominance of one group over the other is reflected. The dominant groups try to impose their ideology on the small group and this dominance of the major group takes place in keeping with the political, economic and ideological interests over the minority. So culture becomes associated with area of contests and consensus.