SIR JADUNATH SARKAR

Sir Jadunath Sarkar, son of Rajkumar Sarkar, a zamindar belonging to Kayastha family of Rampur in the Rajshahi district of Bangladesh was born on 10^th December 1870. Since his father was a zamindar he got good education – double honors in B.A. (History and English) and Masters Degree in English Literature, but earned his reputation as a historian. He changed his loyalty to the muse of Clio, though he continued teaching English till his retirement. He produced not less than 26 volumes on history on various topics. His first book was ‘India of Aurangzeb’ 1901. With this he put his hand to the plough (7  years of labor) and laid it down only in 1958 as he rolled up his life but with a posthumous publication ‘military History’ in 1960.

He secured double honors in B.A. in English and history although he could not get a scholarship of Rs 50 per month (though Rs 12 was substantive for expenses). He passed the MA degree in English scoring 93% marks, which created sensation. He was offered a scholarship to go abroad. He refused to go out of India as he wanted to prepare for the Raychand Premchand Scholarship. (Exam was extremely tough and involved knowledge of many subjects). He did well and got a scholarship of Rs 7000. He was appointed as a lecturer in English at Ripon College, Calcutta. Das, one of his students observes, regarding his ability as teacher, ‘Put all the English and Indian professors on one side of the scale and place Jadunath alone on the other, and the latter will balance them’.

PRINCIPLES BEHIND FORMING OF STATES | STATES REORGANIZING COMMISSION | INDIA

 

PRINCIPLES BEHIND FORMING THE STATES ON LINGUISTIC GROUNDS: STATES REORGANISATION COMMISSION

A special commission was appointed by the Government of India in 1953 to explore the feasibility of making the linguistic factor the main criterion in re-demarcating state boundaries. (Provincial boundaries of British India had been drawn either by historical accident or for reasons of administrative convenience). The Congress recognized the federal realities of Indian civilization in which, as the SRC Report of 1956 puts as, ‘linguistic homogeneity – reflects the social and cultural pattern of living, obtaining in well-defined regions of the country’.

The imperative of national unity however came to the forefront in the post – Partition trauma of independent India, and Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru feared a chain reaction of secession. Reluctantly, he asked the SRC to tackle question of linguistic communities, which coincided with regional diversities.

The SRC’s recommendations were made according to certain governing principles: to preserve and strengthen the unity of India; to keep in mind administrative, economic and financial considerations as in the implementation of five year plans; and to pay attention to cultural linguistic homogeneity as reflected in democratic and popular movements.

The SRC published its report and recommendations in 1955 and a States Reorganization Act followed in 1956. The boundaries of states in Southern India were redrawn in closer conformity with traditional linguistic regions, and eight major language groups got separate states immediately: Assamese – Assam, Bengali – West Bengal, Kannada – Karnataka, Kashmiri – Jammu and Kashmir, Malayalam – Kerala, Oriya – Orissa, Tamil – Madras (Tamil Nadu), Telugu – Andhra.

The SRC rejected demands for a separate Jharkhand state for lack of popular support in all the affected districts. It also rejected demands for a Punjabi Subah on grounds of disguised communalism. The SRC could not insist that fifty percent of all centrally recruited civil servants posted in a given state be non-residents, but it refused to recommend that recruitment to state civil services be restricted to sons of the soil.

After agitations in both Gujarati speaking and Marathi speaking areas, the State of Bombay was divided between Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960. And after a change in leadership in the Akali Dal, its demand for a separate Punjabi speaking state was also conceded in 1966.

Despite the apparent political turbulence associated with the reorganization of states, the SRC recommendations and their implementation prove the genius of the Nehru era in managing centrifugal forces through democratic solutions and pluralistic compromises.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution was one of the most important changes in the history of mankind, which brought about changes in social, economic, cultural and political life of the people. The word ‘Industrial Revolution’ was first used by British Economic Historian Arnold Toynbee (1852) to describe the economic development of England from 1760 – 1840. 

Industrial Revolution as defined by Charles Beard is: “ By the industrial revolution, we mean that great transformation, which has been brought about during the past 150 years, by discoveries and inventions, which have altered fundamentally, all the methods of production and distribution, of means of life and consequently revolutionized all the economic functions of the society”.

NATURE OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 

• It was completely economic in nature
• It was a peaceful revolution
• It resulted in mass production
• It was a silent but mighty upheaval
• It was a continuous process and is still going on
• It caused great suffering to the workers
• It produced many sources of happiness for the capitalists.

 

CAUSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The industrial revolution first started in England and gradually spread to other countries.

1. Geographical Discoveries: The geographical discoveries of new trade routes to new lands which took place from the late 15^th century resulted in expansion of trade and commerce. This provided raw materials and created a demand for manufactured goods.
2. Scientific Progress: The invention of new machines, tools and implements by scientists from England enabled large-scale production of goods. E.g. Samuel Crompton, James Watt, etc.
3. Political and Administrative Stability: Another important cause of the industrial revolution was political and administrative stability that prevailed in England in the 18^th century. Politically England was free. Her parliamentary system of government promoted democracy and domestic peace. The peaceful condition in England and law and order created a favorable condition for capitalists to invest their wealth in factories and machines.
4. Social Flexibility: The English society was more flexible than other European countries such as France. So it was bale to adjust itself to the changing socio economic pattern. The English landlords increased their wealth by shifting their attention from land to trade and business. They also invested in industry.
5. Promotion of Trade and colonization: An important factor of the industrial revolution was England’s policy of promoting trade, commerce and colonization. The Parliament passed Navigation Act in order to protect British shipping from other European rival powers. The British government did not take up commercial activities, but these were carried on by private bodies like the East India Company. These companies made large profits and the country prospered.
6. Immigration of Artisans: There was religious intolerance in France and Spain. The Protestants were persecuted. A large number of Protestants migrated to England with wealth and skills. Their craftsmanship especially in textile industry gave an impetus to industrial revolution in England.
7. Availability of natural resources: England was rich in natural resources like iron and coal. They were required to produce materials such as steel to be used in the manufacture of machines. Coal was used to produce steam, which was used to run heavy machines.
8. Availability of cheap labor: With the coming of new technology, a lot of farm laborers were jobless. The peasants from the village came to the town in search of jobs. This led to the availability of cheap labor to work in industries.

 

IMPACT / EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 

The industrial revolution was a great landmark in the history of the world. It revolutionized the industries and deeply affected the economic, social, political and cultural lives of the people.

Economic effects

1.        Large scale production – The use of machinery and division of labor helped to produce goods on a large scale. Goods were now manufactured more rapidly, cost of production was low and production of goods was standardized. Therefore people could get quality goods at cheaper rates.

2.        Development of banking – The progress in industry and commerce was responsible for the growth of Trading Companies which carried on their business with the help of banks. The agriculturalists also required loans for the improvement of agriculture. This led to the development of banks.

3.        National and international markets – The different governments began to levy heavy taxes on imported goods in order to safeguard their national industries. This led to the development of national markets. The industrial revolution also led to the production of goods on large scale which necessitated export to other countries. Thus, the import export business led to the development of international markets.

4.        Growth of Capitalism – Capital means money or any other form of wealth including land, machines and factories, used productively in business. A capitalist is an owner or manager of such wealth, land, machinery and other means of production. He invests his wealth, owns machines and factories, employs skilled as well as unskilled workers, buys raw materials and transforms them into finished products and sells them at a handsome margin of profit. Capitalism, thus, is a business system in which capital as well as capitalists are the sole controlling factors. The industrial revolution led to the development of capitalism and made capitalists the supreme masters.

5.        Capitalist and Laboring Class – The industrial revolution created two new types of classes – the capitalist class and the laboring class. The masters of industries, the managers of mills and the proprietors of workshops were capitalists, who amassed great wealth by a high margin of profit on goods sold and paying very low wages to workers and compelling them to put in long hours of work in their factories. The laboring class acted merely as a tool in factories. Under these conditions, the poor people became poorer and the rich became richer. Thus the gap between the capitalists and workers went on widening with the passage of time. This caused social disharmony.

6.        England rolled in wealth – England, the mother of the industrial revolution began to roll in wealth on account of industrialization. She became a leading country in the field of industry, trade, commerce and finance, so much so that, she was not only able to withstand the strain of the various wars she participated in, but could also afford to give financial assistance to those countries that approached her.

 

Social effects

1.        Urbanization of culture – The most harmful effect of the industrial revolution was on family life. Before industrial revolution all members of the family helped the head of the family in the family profession. But after industrial revolution, the father and sometimes the whole family shifted to the city in search of employment. The shifting population led to the growth of new cities in Great Britain such as Manchester, Sheffield etc., which became centers of industry, trade and commerce. City life broadened the outlook of people and culture, and civilization became more urban in character.

2.        Development of City Slums – With the establishment of factories, cities got overcrowded, partly because of migration from villages and partly because of high birth rate. The shortage of houses in cities forced many families to stay in slums. These slums caused fevers and a variety of diseases and premature deaths.

3.        Women and children in factories – Factory owners employed women and children on a large scale as they were thought to be more docile and nimbler than men and exploited them by paying low wages for long working hours. They were treated cruelly.

4.        Immorality – There was moral downfall of society and incidences of crime and prostitution increased. The women and children imitated the vices of men and began to drink alcohol more than was necessary.

5.        Unemployment – There was widespread unemployment, as not all those who came to the cities could find work, and many of the industries were seasonal. Job security was nonexistent.

6.        Comforts and luxuries of life – The inventions in the various fields during the period of industrial revolution multiplied the comforts, conveniences and luxuries of life. Life became more convenient and luxurious. New means of transport and communication, railways etc proved to be a boon to mankind.

Political effects

1.        England was the birthplace of the industrial revolution and so it became a dominant power in world trade.

2.        European countries search for new markets for surplus manufactured goods and their need for raw materials led to the rise of imperialism and the economic exploitation of colonies.

3.        Capitalists became the political leaders of the world because they had a large number of colonies under their control, and they had gained enormous wealth from the colonies

4.        Nationalism and Internationalism arose as a result of industrial revolution, which also acted as the trigger of globalization.

5.        Political ideas and Isms such as Marxism, Socialism, Communism etc spread as the various sections of society affected by the revolution tried to uphold their own interests

 

Cultural effects 

The industrial revolution gave an impetus to literary activities. Some of the classics it inspired are ‘A Tale of Two Cities’, ‘David Copperfield’ and ‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens.

CAUSES OF THE REFORMATION

Reformation was a religious movement of the 1500s that led to Protestantism. It had a tremendous impact on social, political and economic life and its influences are still felt today. The movement started in 1517 when Martin Luther, a German monk, protested certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church. The movement divided the medieval Christians into two groups – Roman Catholics and Protestants.

 

Religious causes

a.     Interference of the pope in political matters – During the early Middle Ages, missionaries had converted the people of Europe to Christianity. The Pope gradually assumed greater importance and authority in the church and in relation to secular rulers.

b.     Moral decline of the church – Popes and higher clergy lived like secular princes. They built lavish palaces and indulged in corrupt financial practices. The religious life of the church suffered. There was too much worldliness in Rome

c.      Indulgences – the church had developed indulgences as a means of pardoning sinners from (part of the penalty) for their sins. The practice of selling indulgences was abused as a means of raising money.

Luther believed that indulgences degraded the forgiving grace of god and weakened the Church itself.

 

Cultural causes

The interest in Ancient Civilizations encouraged by the Renaissance had an impact on religion. The study of Hebrew and Greek enabled scholars to read the Scriptures and study Church History.

The invention of Movable type (printing press) in mid 1400s allowed quick broadcasting of ideas, rise in nationalistic fervor, increasing the availability of the Bible to the public and popular discontent at the moral corruption in the church.

 

Political causes

The Catholic Church (early 16^th century) had not only been a religious body, but also a political power. The clergy claimed immunity from civil duties. The church levied taxes on its subjects without interference by the state. By the 16^th century the kings increased power over their own people and against the Pope. Some people regarded the Pope as a political leader of a foreign state and opposed his control and influence in their own country.

 

Economic causes

During the middle ages, Europe had an agricultural economy. Most people were peasants. But as cities began to increase, merchants traded goods for raw materials. As cities grew rich and independent they threw off the control of local lords and princes – bishops and turned to the king or emperor for protection.

 

Martin Luther did not like the Popes idea of indulgences. He believed that Christianity was following and practicing the teachings of Christ. He published 95 thesis in which he expressed his views. He pasted his thesis on the doors of the Wittenberg church in Germany. The pope arrested Luther and excommunicated him. (Many people began to follow Luther and his teachings.)

AMERICAN REVOLTION

American revolution and its significance

The United States of America was born from the New World and started with 13 colonies. The people who inhabited these colonies came from different parts of Europe. In the 18^th century the colonies were controlled by the mother country England. 

CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

The political causes, which led the colonist to revolt against England, were high level of self-governing and education. The colonies were self-reliant and they desired to manage their own political affairs without the interference of the mother country.

The economic causes which led the colonies to revolt was the heavy system of taxation introduced by the Navigation Act, Stamp Act, Sugar Act, Quartering Act and Townsend / Glass Act. The colonist demanded the policy of ‘No Taxation Without Representation’.

The intellectuals who provided the philosophy (ideas) for the American Revolution were John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin and Alexander Hamilton. Thomas Paine through the book ‘Common Sense’ made an appeal to the American people to fight for total independence.

Another reason why the colonists revolted against the mother country was England’s victory over France in the seven years war (1756-1763). The fear of France was not longer there and military protection was not required.

The immediate cause of the revolution was the ‘Boston Tea Party’ (1773) where the colonists dressed as Red Indians (Mohawks) and threw the cases of tea into the sea. This was done to oppose the Townsend Act, which imposed duty on Glass and Tea. Immediately Port Boston was closed for further shipping. All tea was destroyed.

From 1774 onwards, the colonists conducted meetings like First Continental Congress and Second Continental Congress. At these meetings a decision was taken to fight the revolutionary war with the mother country England in 1776. For the next 7 years the colonists and the mother country were at war and finally war came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1785 between British representatives and America. This treaty recognized the birth of a new nation United States of America (USA) in 1783 with George Washington as its first president.

The importance of the American Revolution in modern history is mainly because today America is a superpower and this country is barely hundred years old.

  CONSEQUENCES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION

1.        Birth of a new nation: The 13 original British colonies became an independent nation called the United States of America (USA) by the Treaty of Paris in 1783. The constitution was drafted by important leaders like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson.

2.        Inspiration to the French revolution: The American Revolution gave ideas to the French people who were suffering under the Bourbon King Luis XVI of France. French volunteers, who participated in the revolutionary war of the colonies against England such as Lafayette, played an important role in the French revolution. Six years after the treaty of Paris, the French revolution broke out. The slogan of the French revolution was Liberty, Equality and Fraternity.

3.        Change in British Colonial Policy: The American Revolution made Britain change her attitude towards colonies in Asia and Africa. England learnt the lesson that ‘Colonies are like ripe fruits, when ready they will fall off’. Later England gave freedom to her white colonies of Canada, Australia, and New Zealand and by 1947 colored colonies like South Africa and India got their independence.

4.        Victory of Democracy and Liberty: The birth of America was a victory for democracy i.e. Government of the people, by the people and for the people. The declaration of American independence is a document of great constitutional importance. The principles of this declaration set an example for other revolutions of the world. The constitution had liberty of the people as the main achievement.

5.        Constitution of America: the American constitution defines the rights and liberties of the American people. It also suggests methods to achieve this aim. This constitution set up a federal form of government where powers were divided between Central and State Government. The Indian Constitution has copied the federal principle from the American constitution.

REFORMATION

 Reformation was a religious movement of the 1500s that led to Protestantism. It had a tremendous impact on social, political and economic life and its influences are still felt today. The movement started in 1517 when Martin Luther, a German monk, protested certain practices of the Roman Catholic Church. The movement divided the medieval Christians into two groups – Roman Catholics and Protestants.

There was moral decline in the church. The religious were not concerned about serving the people but wanted to increase their wealth. This led to corruption. Many Europeans did not like the interference of the Pope in their political matters. An indulgence controversy started whereby a person could buy his education and by reading the Bible the people began to challenge the authority of the church. They stopped paying taxes to the church.

Martin Luther did not like the Popes idea of indulgences. He believed that Christianity was following and practicing the teachings of Christ. He published 95 thesis in which he expressed his views. He pasted his thesis on the doors of the Wittenberg church in Germany.

The pope arrested Luther and excommunicated him. Many people began to follow Luther and his teachings.

Counter reformation was a movement to remove the defects in the Christian church and check the spread of Protestantism.

After the Reformation ‘The Church began to appoint Popes and priests (religious) who had a good moral character. A meeting of Popes and religious (Roman Catholic and Protestants) was held called the Council of Trent to control the spread of Protestantism.

The main aim of the reformation was emancipation in the field of religion, which brought emancipation in the field of human thought resulting in progress of science and philosophy. It promoted individualism. It made way for the Age of Enlightenment (17^th & 18^th centuries). The Spirit of Reformation produced philosophers and thinkers like Hume, Voltaire, Hegel, Karl Marx. Liberalism and Marxism in some way or the other were influenced by the Spirit of Reformation.

Before the reformation, Europe was held together by the universalism of the catholic church and by the claim of the Holy Roman Emperor to be the supreme secular (nonreligious) ruler.

After the reformation, Europe had several large Protestant Churches and some smaller Protestant Religious groups. All of them competed with the Cahtolic Church and with each other for the faith and allegiance of the people.

 

 

DEMOCRACY IN INDIA

Is India fit for democracy?

British did not consider India capable of democracy – too traditional, dynastic, illiterate, fatalistic, etc. It was a philosophy and practice alien to India where a monarch of dominant group exercised power while the rest accepted and followed it. Thus when democracy was introduced in India it did not grow / develop as a response to people’s needs.

Yet the overall assessment over 60 years is that India has adopted democracy. The parliamentary system, independent judiciary and electoral process etc. was seen as the only workable type of government for such a diverse country. Therefore it was adopted even before independence.

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE DEMOCRACY / SIGNS THAT DEMOCRACY IS HEALTHY IN INDIA

-         Regular elections at the municipal, state and national level since 1950

-         Growth of several political parties representing and expressing the views of different sections of society

-         Largely uninterrupted parliamentary government (especially when compared to Pakistan, Burma etc., which have frequently lapsed into dictatorship) (Except 70s emergency)

-         Non political Armed Force – not interested in political power (therefore no coups)

-         Increasingly assertive press – much freer than most afro Asian countries

-         Decentralization and strengthening of local government bodies – Panchayati Raj – taking democracy to the grass root level.

IMPEDIMENTS

-         Illiteracy – information cannot be verified, manipulate voters, people not aware of their rights, cannot use the law to protect themselves, unaware of political practices, duties, etc.

-         Poverty – subsistence level cannot be bothered by politics / easily exploited / voters are ‘bought’.

-         Over population and migration – very expensive elections, huge numbers of voters, personnel, booths, counting, etc., movement of population, voting lists have to be reviewed, huge no. of people cannot vote because they are not in their constituencies.

-         Group interest over national interest – voting for parties for the benefit of a group, narrow interests rather than national good, regional parties, reservation, bartering of votes for benefits etc, parties only concerned about single issues etc.

-         Criminalization of politics – candidates with criminal records, use of unfair methods for votes, booth-capturing, intimidation, corruption (continues within the government)

-         Apathy of voters – falling percentage of voter turnout especially in urban, educated, middle class areas.

-         Extraneous influences – religion, caste, language get mixed up with politics

-         Democracy does not guarantee the best government – voters could be duped, post election alliances, splitting of votes can result in a third party becoming the majority.

ROLE OF EDUCATION

‘Democracy can never be successful without education’. The process requires one to understand one’s rights, duties, information on how the system works, to live as civilised citizens – exercise franchise with maturity, understanding and analysis of the agenda of each party.

‘Democratic government demands an educated people’ – Hetherington

‘Democracy in its modern form would be quite impossible in a nation where men cannot read – Bertrand Russell

Also required for social equality (doing away with prejudice) and economic opportunity.

ROLE OF PRESS

-         Extremely important

-         Education about democracy and political system, mass education

-         Enables communication – people to their government and parties / government to carry their message to the people

-         Highlights, debates important national issues

-         Watch dog on the government and parties

Free Press – not a government mouth piece

Free press should exercise responsibility, sensitivity, should not instigate trouble especially against communities or castes etc.

 

SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN OF SAMUDRAGUPTA

During his career of more than two decades, Samudragupta invaded South India more than once and it is his important campaign.

Altogether 12 Kings and Princes of the South (Dakshinapatha) are listed in the inscription. In the case of the Kings of this area, he followed the policy of first capturing the Kings, then releasing them from captivity and reinstating them as Kings in their territory. By showing royal mercy he won their allegiance. (Being a shrewd ruler, he realized that he could not permanently rule over such distant regions, but it was the wealth of the Deccan which attracted him).

For his South Indian Campaign, Samudragupta proceeded through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the Eastern coast and reached Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.

After these conquests, he performed Ashvamedha Yajna. On this occasion, he issued gold coins depiction the sacrificial horse bearing the legend conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

The Allahabad Pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering his kingdom. These rulers paid tribute, followed his orders and showed their obedience by attending his court. These were located in Eastern Rajasthan, Northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Nepal. Further, some forest kings (Atavika Rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘paricharaka’ (helpers).

Another group of political powers listed in the inscription are Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Srilanka) and inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to Samudragupta’s court. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarna, King of Srilanka, sent and embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery and guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodhgaya.

Samudragupta launched several expeditions to the south. It is impossible to determine which states were humbled in which campaign and consequently the routes of his invasions cannot be determined. It is quite possible that some of the coastal states like Kanchi and Kerala were invaded directly by sea route with the help of the imperial navy.

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION IN INDIA

Neolithic Age in India – The word ‘neolithic’ is derived form the two Greek words ‘neo’ meaning ‘new’ and ‘lithic’ meaning ‘stone’.  So Neolithic age means New stone age. In this period, the men used polished tools and weapons of different varieties.

The Neolithic is generally defined as a way of lie involving crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life. In the Indian context Neolithic Age began in 7000 BC. Mehrgarh situated in Baluchistan is the only site belonging to this period

This age marks the climax of the growth of stone age culture. During this period stone continued to be the main material used by man in his daily life. But the implements of this age are far more superior than the preceding age. The tools are polished and have geometric designs. Various types of stones such as the fine grained dark green trap, diorite, basalt, slate and sandstone were used for making tools. These tools were highly finished. Different shapes and sizes were given to the tools according to the requirements of purpose. The implements include axes, celts, adzes, chisels, picks, hammers, discs and sling stones.

The Neolithic age does not simply mark a distinct progress in tool making industry; but introduces revolutionary changes in the different aspects of human life. Following are some changes:

-          Man came to know about the use of fire which changed his food habits and made his life more comfortable

-          Beginnings of agriculture is another landmark of this age. As a result of this the Neolithic man started plantation of fruit trees and growing corn

-          The beginning of agriculture coincided with the domestication of animals such as dog, cow, ox and goat. The domesticated animals helped man in agriculture and transport. They also provided milk.

-          Agriculture and domestication of animals required the man to stay at a particular place and thus brought a settled life. Instead of taking shelter only in caves, he build houses of wood and thatch. It paved the way of settled civilization.

-          Every change that occurred during this age proved to be the cause of further changes. With the beginning of cooking food and agriculture, a change in the form of utensils had become inevitable. This inevitability resulted in the introduction of the potters industry. In the beginning only handmade pottery was known. The discovery of the wheel accelerated the progress of human civilization tremendously. The wheel simplified the manufacturing of pottery as well as increased the speed of production.

-          The Neolithic age also marked the beginning of spinning and weaving industry

-          The settled life of the Neolithic age was bund to encourage the aesthetic sense of man. The cave dwellers of het period burnished and polished the cave walls and used them for drawing different types of paintings. Such paintings can be seen in the rock shelters at Bhimbetka near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

-          The Neolithic people also developed social institutions and religious beliefs. The institution of family is said to have taken its roots during this period. The dead bodies were kept in urns and were buried along with food and the objects used by the dead persons. The burials were protected by roof of stones and a stone circle around. It indicates that people had deep regard toward the dead persons. It also gives an indication of the belief in life after death.

Neolithic sites:

Burzahom in Kashmir – At this site dogs and wolves were buried with their owners.

Gufral in Kashmir – ‘Gufral’ literally means ‘cave of the potter’.

Mehrgarh – regarded as the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan

Gumla on the right bank of Indus

Saraikhola near Taxila

Jalilpur near left bank of Ravi – characterized by stone blade industry, terracotta net sinkers for fishing.

Koldihwa and Mahagara near south of Allahabad. Here we find evidence of rice in the form of charred rice and Neolithic pots containing rice husks. This is the oldest evidence of rice cultivation not only in India but also anywhere in the world.

BRAMHO SAMAJ

The Bramho Samaj (The Society of God)

The Bramho Samaj was the earliest reform movement of the modern type which was greatly influenced by modern western ideas. Raja Ram Mohan Roy was the founder of the Bramho Samaj. He was a very well-read man. He studied Oriental languages like Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit and attained proficiency in European languages like English, French, Latin, Greek and Hebrew. His extensive studies freed his mind from the bigotry that characterized the average Bengali.

Although Ram Mohan Roy was a man of versatile genius, the governing passion of his life was religious reforms. At a time when the Bengali youth, under the influence of Western learning, were drifting towards Christianity, Ram Mohan Roy proved to be the Champion of Hinduism. While he defended Hinduism against the hostile criticism of the missionaries, he sought to purge Hinduism of the abuses that had crept into it.

At the early age of fifteen he had criticized idolatry and supported his viewpoint by quotations from the Vedas. He reinterpreted Hindu doctrines and found ample spiritual basis for his humanitarianism in the Upanishads. He started a campaign for the abolition of Sati, condemned polygamy and concubines, denounced casteism, advocated the right of Hindu widows to remarry. He rejected Christianity, denied the divinity of Jesus Christ, but accepted the humanism of Europe. Thus, Raja Ram Mohan Roy sought to affect a cultural synthesis between the East and the West. Even today he is recognized as the forerunner of Modern India and a great path finder of his century, for he embodied the new spirit of enquiry, thirst for knowledge, brad humanitarianism, all to be achieved in the Indian setting. In the words of Dr. Macnicol – ‘Ram Mohan Roy was the herald of the new age’ and the fire that kindled in India burnt ever since.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy accepted the concept of one God as propounded by the Upanishads. For him God was shapeless, invisible, omnipotent and omnipresent but the guiding spirit of the world and omniscient.

In August 1828, Roy founded the Bramho Sabha. The Trust Deed executed in 1880, explained the object of the Bramho Samaj as ‘the worship and adoration of the Eternal, Unreachable, Immutable Being who is the Author and Preserver of the Universe’. The Samaj declared its opposition to idol worship, and ‘no graven image, statue or sculpture, carving, painting, picture, portrait or the likeness of anything was to be allowed in the Samaj building. There was no place for priesthood in the Samaj nor sacrifices of any kind were allowed. The worship was performed through prayers and meditation and readings from the Upanishads. Great emphasis was laid on ‘promotion of charity, morality, piety, benevolence, virtue and strengthening of the bods of union between man of all religious persuasions and creeds’. It should be clearly understood that Rammohan Roy never intended to establish a new religion. He only wanted to purge Hinduism of the evil practices that had crept into it. Roy remained a devout Hindu till the end of his life and always wore the sacred thread.

From the beginning the appeal of the Bramho Samaj had remained limited to the intellectuals, educationally enlightened Bengalis living in the towns.

In the field of religious reform, the main significance of Bramho Samaj lay not in what is retained of traditional Hinduism, but what it discarded of the old beliefs of Hinduism. Its overall contribution may be summed up as:

-          It discarded faith in divine Avtars

-          It denied that any scripture could enjoy the status of ultimate authority transcending human reason and conscience

-          It denounced polytheism and idol worship

-          It criticized the caste system

-          It took no definite stand on the doctrine of karma and transmigration of soul and left it to individual Bramho to believe either way

In matters of social reform Bramho Samaj has influenced Hindu society. It attacked many dogmas and superstitions. It condemned the prevailing Hindu prejudice against going abroad. It worked for a respectable status for women in society, condemned Sati, worked for abolition of purdah system, discouraged child marriages and polygamy, crusaded for widow-remarriage, provision of educational facilities, etc. it also attacked casteism and untouchability.

In the field of social reform, the focus was on four objects:

-          Disapproval of caste system

-          Raising the age of marriage for both males and females

-          Widow remarriage

-          Woman’s education

The prominent leaders of the Samaj were Justice Mahadev Govind Ranade, R. G. Bhandarkar and N. G. Chandaverkar. A number of Bramho Samaj Centers were opened in the state of Madras.

LAWS & PUBLIC RELATIONS

Laws in free societies are statements of principles people have agreed to live by in order to get along together and to live in peace and harmony, protecting and advancing societies cherished values and discouraging those actions considered detrimental to public welfare. 

Law deals with what is right or wrong, proper and improper, permissible or denying; through them for all frustration is sometimes produced we would all be in solid state. For PR professionals no single area is more important. Law and regulation with their application tell our institution what they can do and cannot do where with whom and for how much. Equally important to tell us what others can do and cannot do to us. Simply stated they are the rules and we cannot play games effectively unless we understand goods.

LEGAL SENSITIVE

Conflicts can quite frequently arise between PR professionals and attorneys playing on some team and representing visiting the same client or institution. Most frequent argument for simple matters, openness, how much we can say. PR professional must be aware of basic legal consideration; effective institution served in general and intimate laws and relations that govern professional’s actions or professionalists.

Five major areas of concern

While law is complex and exhaustive most of the matter PR professionals need to be concerned with can be grouped into 5 categories

a.   Communication Law and Regulation

b.   Law and rules concerning financial relation

c.   Consumer relation

d.   Employee relation

e.   Environmental laws

 

a.   Communication Law and Regulation

The first involves those laws and regulations that in one way or other deal with communication and most particularly with truth, accuracy and fairness in communication with privacy and regulation of individual and organization.

b.   Laws and rules concerning financial relation

Second involves laws and regulation concerning how in business deals with and communicates to its shareholders both present and potential. For most part this is a matter of ruling and administrative laws laid down at securities and exchange, commission and major stock exchange.

c.   Consumer relation

Third major area concerning legal sensitivity is the way business deals with customers, quality and safety of its products and services and how it condensed itself as competitor and how it regains itself in respect to state laws under which it is clustered.

d.   Employee relation

Fourth is the matter of way in business or institution condensed itself in relation to its employees. Central, state laws and regulation in this area flow from labor dept, enrollment dept, and occupational safety authority.

e.   Environmental relation

Finally is the matter of law how an opposition condenses itself with respect to environment as protection of public from hazards or harms that might be created from its operations. PR persons should be aware of environmental and pollution regulation enacted by various central state and municipal authorities and keep in mind that this is moving target. New laws are passed each day. New regulations are made, all of which are to underscore fact a law or regulation exists somewhere governing practically any move an organization makes and they all have PR in implication. A professional must be individual smart enough to keep in mind all laws are a result of required needs. Injustice or inequality and most laws are result of legislature reacting to what they think their constituents think about an issue. Another way of saying it is that most laws have their basis in public opinion. Public opinion is public turf. For business organization and PR officials it is for better to be sensitive and responsive to public welfare in first instance than to have to deal with corrective rules later. Part of professionals job is to make sure his or her management colleagues understand this.

COPYWRIGHT AND CONTEMPT OF COURT

Those engaged in PR should also be familiar with laws concerning liable contempt of court and legislature and copyright.

Liable – It is a writing tending or amounting to harm or injury and regret character of person who is the object of it. It is a defamatory statement published in press or otherwise while slander is old defamation, liable is the publication of a false defamatory statement expression (printing or by signs, picture or in some similar form) which is permanent and published without lawful justification or excuse concerning a person and which injures ones reputation. Statement is divided into following categories:

a.   Exciting hatred, contempt, scorn or ridicule

b.   To be shunned or avoided by society

c.   Effecting profession or office

d.   Effecting trade or business

For instance, calling person a liar or villain or a swine or making dishonorable comparison of person to character in history, fiction or mythology or announcement lyharus statement.

Difference usually put up a justification, privilege, fair comment an innocent to mark to express truth about person for public good or to express in good faith and opinion about contempt of public servant in discharge of his public function or of any person touching any public question is not liable similarly publish substantially true report of court of law or to comment on good faith or merits of civil and criminal cases is not considered defamatory. A reporter carries press in good faith and opinion on merits of case, which have been decided, or merits of any performance, which its author has submitted to judgment of public. He can also make comment on another person. A good faith if it is for production of person making it or any other or for public good. Acceptance of defense as indicated depends upon interpretation of statement made and appreciation of evidence by court. Solution available to aggrieved person in India is of two parts – civil action under common law and criminal proceeding for deformation. In first essential for damages by minority compulsion, in criminal proceeding it is punishment with fine or imprisonment.

 

CONTEMPT OF COURT

Any act done or writing published calculated to bring court of law into contempt or lower authority or obstruct or interfere with new course of justice or lawful process of court is contempt of court. For instance publication of proceedings of court are being heard in camera, false and grossly inaccurate reporting are court proceeding, publication that made them to interfere with orderly administration of justice or publication that scandalizes the court, adjures counsels, parties or witnesses are contempt of court and also comment should be made and for care should be taken in reporting when case is subjoined.

Press does enjoy privilege of fair comment but personal attach on judges attributing in competency, corruption, partiality, judicial dishonesty, political or caste bias, improper motives are considered contempt of court.

 

COPYRIGHT

Copyright is a right to a person in respect of a work produced by him as a result of exercise of skill, judgment and labor. Under copyright act protection is given to literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, archaeological or any work related to craftsmanship in writing and also to films, television, broadcasting production, reproduction, performance in public. However, a fair dealing with literary, musical, artistic work for the purpose of research criticism, review, reporting, current event in newspaper or magazine or judicial process etc do not constitute infringement or violation of copyright under copyright act registration of any work in which copyrighting existence is entirely voluntary. In absence of registration, interest for fringement to be under common law.