IMPERIALISM IN CHINA

China had early commercial contact with the west since the beginning of the Christian era. China opened only two ports to foreign traders. In the 18^th century, the English East India Company enjoyed the monopoly of eastern trade. Chinese silk, cotton and tea were in great demand in the European markets. For these, payment was made in silver. The trade was favorable to the china. The unequal balance of trade between the two countries created uneasiness among the British. Tea had become the national drink and by early 19^th century British ships were transporting millions of kilograms of tea to England. Unfortunately, British were unable to come up with products to sell to the Chinese. As a result, in some years, 90% of the cargo brought by British ships to china consisted of silver bullion. British viewed such as imbalance as unhealthy. So they started selling opium in china on a large scale.

Opium trade was profitable to the British traders, but did much physical and moral damage to the Chinese. The opium while addicting the Chinese population was draining a huge amount of silver from china. Soon British exports to china increased.

In 1839, when a Chinese government official seized an opium cargo and destroyed it, Britain declared war and easily defeated china. The Chinese were then forced to pay heavy damages to the British traders. The Chinese government also agreed that British would be tried for any crimes committed in the English rather than Chinese courts. This was known as extra territorial rights. The Chinese government was no longer free to impose tariffs on foreign goods. Hong Kong was turned over to Britain.

Soon France entered into similar unequal treaties with china on the pretext that a French missionary had been murdered. England and France fought another war with china. China was defeated and was forced to grant more privileges to the conquerors.

Japan tried to increase her influence over Korea, which was under Chinese domination. China resented this and the two countries went to war. China gave Korea her independence and gave Formosa (Taiwan) to Japan. She had to pay war damages of 150 million dollars to Japan.

France, Russia, Britain and Germany gave loans to china to help her meet this payment. In return these western countries divided china into spheres of influence, which meant that each country had certain regions of china reserved exclusively for its purposes.

The United States feared that china would be completely given out in spheres of influence and that its trade with china would be shut off. Therefore USA gave the ‘Open Door Policy’. According to this policy, all countries would have equal rights to trade anywhere in china.

The scramble for privileges stopped in china after an uprising against the foreign powers known as the ‘Boxer Rebellion’. But the Chinese failed and had to pay heavy war damages. Imperialism continued through warlords. In a period of a few decades, china had been reduced to the status of an international colony.

The division of China into spheres of influence has often been describes as ‘the Cutting of the Chinese Melon’.

LET A HUNDRED FLOWERS BLOOM / MOVEMENT

The year of 1956 witnessed the cooling of relations between China and Soviet Union and the upheaval in Hungary against Russian control. The eight congress of the CCP (Chinese Communist Party) adopted a new party constitution which indicated the following changes in the policy.

1. A policy of peaceful co-existence in domestic affairs
2. Admission by the CCP that accesses had been committed during the movement against the counter revolutionaries
3. Policy of co-existence with non communist parties

The relaxation in the policy of ideological regimentation was indicated by the slogans first used in May 1959 by the director of the propaganda department of the Central committee, ‘Let a Hundred schools of thought contend’. The upheaval in Poland and the student unrest and the consequent revolution in Hungary in October 1956 had created tensions in the Soviet Bloc. In November 1956 Mao Tse Tung at a meeting of the Central Committee initiated a policy of criticism of party members and welcomed a rectification campaign of party politics. The new policy was announced in a speech by Mao before the Supreme State conference on 27 February 1957.

The events in eastern Europe especially concerning the Soviet Satellite States of Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia were keenly watched by the Chinese leaders. The cautious statements of liberalization of civil rights was undertaken and a campaign to rectify the errors in the policy was guardedly launched. The speech given by Mao in February 1957 was published in June 1957 with the addition of the following six criteria to judge the words and actions of those expressing themselves under the new policy of the Hundred Flowers. (The February 1957 speech of Mao is also translated as ‘let flowers of all seasons blossom and a hundred schools contend’. The latter part refers to the Sung period – 6^th and 3^rd century B.C. – where contending schools of thought flourished in ancient china). The policy permitted the expression of those discussions which showed the following characteristics:

1. Promoting unity among the various nationalities in china, actions and words destroying this would not be permitted.
2. Promoting socialist transformation and socialist construction.
3. Consolidating and not weakening the people’s democratic dictatorship.
4. Consolidating did not weaken democratic centralism
5. Strengthening and not weakening the leadership of the Communist Party.
6. Benefiting and not harming international socialist solidarity of the peace loving people of the world. 

Mao had also emphasized that out of these six criteria, the most important ones were those relating to the socialist path and the leadership of the party. The drive for rectification of the party members, of the style of party work was to be directed against sectarianism, subjectivism and bureaucratism and was to lead to criticism and self-criticism of party action. Persuasion and not force was to be used for correcting the errors.

Immediately after the announcement of the rectification campaign of the party a wave of criticism of the policies and leaders of the party occurred throughout the country. The students of the Universities were in the lead of criticism of the communist party. The criticism expressed in the speeches and writings brought about numerous strikes and peasant riots in several parts of the country. This outbreak started immediately after the publications of Mao’s speech in June 1957.

As a consequence of the violent expression of the peoples opposition to some of the policies of the government and the encouragement provided by the Hungarian revolts, Mao had to direct the comrades to suspend the plan of holding such controlled criticism meetings. In July 1957 it was disclosed in the People’s Daily that the rectification campaign was designed to tempt the hidden counter revolutionaries and the ‘rightist opportunists’ to come out. An anti rightist campaign was undertaken to eliminate the opposition in the usual way – self denunciation, humiliating confessions, social pressures, loss of position, imprisonment and even execution.

After expressing opposition of the intellectuals, democratic parties and academicians, now their attention was directed to the military leaders. Teng Hsiao-Ping the Secretary general of the communist party in November 1957 pointed out that ‘individualistic tendencies’ had appeared among the military officers. They had become alienated from the main stream and joined the rightists in denouncing the colletiveization of agriculture. There was a need to reestablish discipline even if it meant reverting to the old policy.

As a first step to revert to the old policy of violence and political persecution to a policy termed Hsiafang drive or a ‘downward transfer’ drive was initiated in September 1957. It began as a movement to discipline the teacher and university students who had displayed unrest during the Hundred Flowers Period.

The downward transfer in a couple of months covered hundreds of thousands of young educated elite. In November 1957 nearly three million students were sent to rural sections to work on collective farms. This was intended to combat ‘bureaucratism’ and prevent a ‘separation from the masses’ of the cadres and the educated. This became a permanent programme of education as all functionaries including high army officers were to serve one month a year in rural areas or at lower levels of their own organizations thus establishing contacts with the masses.

DR SUN YAT SEN | HISTORY | CHINA

Evaluate the role of Dr. Sun Yat Sen in the Revolution of 1911.

Briefly describe the career of Dr. Sun Yat Sen as a nation builder.

Critically examine Dr. Sun Yat Sen’s ‘San Min Chui’.

Comment: Dr. Sun Yat Sen

 

SUN YAT SEN – EARLY LIFE

Dr. Sun Yat Sen, the father of the Chinese Revolution was born on 12^th November, 1899, in Hsiang-Shan, near Canton. After his early schooling at China, he went to Honolulu where he received knowledge of English and Maths. He converted to Christianity. Having seen China’s plight, he began to thing about overthrowing the Manchu dynasty. Sun joined the College of Medicine for Chinese in Hongkong because of its better curriculum and the freedom that Hongkong afforded for revolutionary activity. At Hongkong he received a sound training in science and medicine from the strict English dean, Dr. James Cantlie, and he also used the school as the headquarters for his revolutionary activities. He graduated first in his class and began practice in Macao. He then moved to Canton, freely donating his services and medical supplies to the needy in order to win friends and make new contacts.

At Canton, Sun met an old Taoist priest, who advised his that for the revolution to succeed he must seek the help of secret societies. From him, Sun learned of the organization and the locations of these secret bodies.

Sun’s ambition – Sun considered reform as a possible means of saving China before panning to over throw the Manchus which was his ambition.

Sun’s oath – Sun believed that overthrowing the Manchus was the only way out and so he took an oath: Manchus have to be overthrown. After succeeding set up a democracy.

Sun’s aim – The society was founded for the regeneration of China to do away with corrupt people, rejuvenate new ideas and spread awareness among the masses.

Sun’s concern for his people was so great that he gave up his medical career in 1883 and took to revolutionary activities in China.

Revive China Society – Sun sought the help of the Chinese overseas, the secret societies and the Chinese converts and the missionaries. He organized the Revive China Society in Honolulu with the help of his brother and an initial membership of 112 members. He established the headquarters of the Revive China Society at Hongkong with its branches in Chinese provinces. Members of the society took an oath to ‘expel the Manchus, restore the Chinese rule and establish a federal republic’. It was the first revolutionary body.

Revive China Society raised 3000 men with a view to capture Caton for establishing it as their revolutionary base. However, the plot was discovered resulting in the loss of forty-eight lives. Sun Yat Sen then fled first to Hongkong and then to Japan. He set up a branch of the Revive China Society at Yokahoma and began to develop connections with Japanese sympathizers. The Japanese had described the Canton uprising as a ‘revolution’ rather than a revolt. Sun Yat Sen ordered that henceforth all uprisings should be called ‘revolutions’ because he felt flattered by the description. While in Japan, he also took up Western attire.

The London Kidnap – Sun went to Honolulu to promote revolution and then to the United States to seek support from Chinese communities there. He was kidnapped and detained on the third floor. The embassy had made arrangements for him to be sent to China secretly, but the attempt failed and the British foreign office secured his release. The kidnap was a blessing in disguise since it made him world famous overnight.

Sun Yat Sen remained in Europe for about two years to study political and social developments. He developed the idea of a social revolution to complement his earlier nationalistic and democratic revolution. This was the basis of his famous Three Peoples Principles (San Min Chui). The Three Peoples Principles subsequently became the revolutionary philosophy for Sun and his followers.

Sun abroad – While in Japan he set up a branch of his party in Yokahama. Then he toured America to arouse the Chinese communities and spread awareness regarding national movement. He travelled to South East Asia, Hawaii and the US to gain support from overseas Chinese.

Boxer Rebellion – The failure of the Boxer Revolution fully exposed the inefficiency and corruption of the Manchu Rulers and consequently many looked upon him with favor. He was no longer regarded as a rebel or an outlaw, but rather as a patriotic, devoted revolutionary working for the betterment of his country and his people. Students in China and Japan began to support him.

The Tung Meng Hui (1905) – Sun Yat Sen travelled widely to seek support for his cause. Encouraged by the enthusiastic response of Chinese students in Japan, he began to consider the idea of forming a revolutionary party. Many of the students were secretly trained in the methods of weapon making, military tactics and guerilla warfare. They took an oath before Sun to ‘establish a republic and equalize the land’.

On 20^th August 1905, the United Chinese League or Tung Meng Hui was set up with Sun Yat Sen as its chairman. 70 persons joined the Tung Meng Hui and for Sun, it marked the downfall of the Manchus. The three principles were accepted as the revolutionary philosophy.

The founding of the Tung Meng Hui constituted a milestone in the Chinese Revolution because it materially changed the character and style of the revolution. No longer did Sun operate on the periphery of the society. He had moved into the main stream of Chinese nationalism, receiving support from students, writers and progressive army officers. The social base and potential areas of operates had been substantially enlarged, because the Tung Meng Hui was a multiprovincial and multiclass organization. It also provided a unified central organization that resembled a modern political party, which served as a rallying point for all revolutionary and progressive forces in China. It has been rightly described as the ‘mother of the Chinese Revolution’.

Role in the 1911 Revolution

In 1906, 1907 and 1910, Dr. Sun Yat Sen and his followers launched a number of futile revolutions in attempt to overturn / topple the corrupt Manchu government. By 1911, the Tung Meng Hui was completely officialized to from the Kuo Min Tung (Nationalist Party).

On October 10, 1911, an explosion at a bomb factory operated by his followers (Tung Meng Hui Society) in Hankow, sparked a military revolt. Even though he was out of the country, the success of the revolt marked a turning point in his struggle against the Manchus and nearly 15 provinces joined him.

When the 1911 Revolution broke out, Sun Yat Sen was in the United States from where he returned to assume its leadership. On 29^th December 2011, Sun was elected the provisional president of the Republic of China. After 27 years of struggle, Sun’s lifelong dream became a reality. However, Sun’s triumph was short lived. Very soon he was made to give up the provisional presidency to make way for Yuan Shik Kai who was made the president of the Republic of China. As an idealist he cared little whether he or Yuan was the president as long as the Manchy dynasty was overthrown and the principle of a republic was firmly established. He was also disappointed with his followers who ignored his 3 stage revolutionary procedure and his principles of democratic reconstruction and peoples livelihood, they emphasized only nationalism to overthrow the Manchus.

Second Revolution, its failure and Sun Yat Sen – On 12 July 1913, the military governor of Kiangsi declared independence. Very soon he was followed by six other provinces. This was the famous second revolution. Yuan had little double in crushing it and soon their provinces came under his firm military control. The first phase of the Chinese revolution overthrew the Manchu dynasty but did not establish a parliamentary republic. With the failure of the second revolution, the first phase was over. Although the parliamentary republic was revived after the death of Yuan Shik Kai, it could not maintain itself against various warlords. All attempts to revive it in the face of determined opposition to the warlords failed. Consequently, the revolution lost its political character for some time.

The Kuo Min Tang – 1912-1924

Tung Meng Hui, the secret revolutionary organization, which had brought about the 1911 revolution, lost much of its revolutionary force with the overthrow of the Manchus. It was then reorganized as a non-secret political party including other groups than the Tung Meng Hui. In 1913, after the failure of the second revolution, it was again turned into a secret revolutionary party with all its members required to take an oath to Sun Yat Sen. Since many members refused to take this oath, its membership was restricted to very few. Thereafter, the revolutionaries were kept together solely by the personality of Sun Yat Sen. Party membership became a matter of tradition – it merely meant that one had personal contact with Sun Yat Sen. The party was again reorganized after the capture of Kwantung. The new National People’s Party of China remained a secret society, but the personal oath was abolished along with some other restrictions. However, since no proper organization of the party machine was taken up, the party remained the instrument of the leader. In September 1923, Sun undertook another reorganization of the party along radically different lines. Under the guidance of Michael Borodin, the party was transformed into a highly organized party of disciplined individuals, united by the acceptance of common program of action instead of by only the personal tie and loyalty to Sun. The model for the reorganization was the Russian Communist Party. Sun Yat Sen was to be the party president for life.

Three Peoples Principles (San Min Chui)

Dr. Sun Yat Sen’s greatest contribution to Chinese national ideas were Sam Min Chui or the Three Peoples Principles. Even though these gained concrete shape in 1924 at Canton, they had been developing in his mind since 1905. The three principles were:

1.    Nationalism – Min Tsu

2.    Democracy – Min Chuan

3.    Peoples Livelihood – Min Shung

Nationalism – Min Tsu – According to Clyde and Beers, ‘Nationalism was a term suggesting people and race. To Sun it was a call to end the alien Manchu rule. China’s semi-colonial status under unequal treaties and foreign naval leaseholds’.

Sun felt that the Chinese lacked the idea of a nation state. They had cultural unity but lacked political unity. To him, China was like a rope of sand, where all the particles were alike but not bound together. The bond had to be done through the cement of nationalism which would lead to the formation of a strong political society.

Nationalism meant development of a nationwide patriotism, a loyalty to China, a transfer from traditional loyalties of family and clan and village to the state. The easiest way to develop patriotism was on the basis of hostility to those who threaten the integrity of the state, it was therefore necessary to present a united national front against imperialism. Imperialism had reduced China to a ‘hypocolony’. Her position was worse than a colony for many powers were trying to rule China.

The Manchus were aliens who did not think of the development of China. Greater China consisted of not only one people but of 5 peoples. Nationalism meant incorporating all these peoples. It was a new patriotism to the state, transcending all racial inequalities. It required a united passion of the Chinese against oppressions of the Manchu rulers and imperialists. More importance was given to merit rather than class differences.

Democracy – Min Chuan – To Sun Yan Sen, the Chinese in achieving democracy must acquire a new concept of ‘liberty’ through the individual curbing his own freedom in order to ensure the welfare of the state.

On equality, the companion principle in a democratic society, Sun held that, since men are not naturally free neither did nature create them equal.

His ideas were derived from four principle sources:

a.    Western Republicanism

b.    Swiss Doctrine of Election – Recall, Initiative, Referendum

c.    Soviet Democratic Centralism

d.    Chinese ideas of Examination and Control.

The exercise of these mechanisms was intended to make possible the replacement of the authoritarian structure by a democratic structure of elected representatives.

Constitutionally the elected government would rest on 5 powers:

1.    Legislative

2.    Executive

3.    Judicial

4.    Examination

5.    Control

Sun envisaged 3 stages of progress towards Democracy

a.    Military government

b.    A period of political tautology (training)

c.    Completion of Chinese reconstruction and inauguration of a constitutional government – democratic constitutional government

Peoples livelihood – Min Shieng – According to Clyde and Beers, ‘Min Shieng was a term used to embrace a number of social and economic theories which had attracted Sun’s attention’.

The principle of livelihood was that the state should direct or control peoples affairs so that the needs of all should be supplied as far as possible by all.

Sun favored nationalizing of systems of transportation and communication, the improvement of working conditions, fuller education for workers, children and development of consumer cooperatives.

Sun wanted livelihood for all to find remedies for unemployment, improve living conditions for laborers and to provide care toe the poor who are sick, aged and disabled.

He wanted industrialization by the use of foreign capital.

He also believed in equalization of land to prevent inequlatiy between rich and poor and thereby avert ‘social revolution’.

Sun also gave 6 objectives to his followers

1.    To overthrow the Manchu dynasty

2.    To nationalize land

3.    To establish a republic

4.    To promote world peace

5.    To establish good and friendly relations between China and Japan

6.    To secure support of various European powers

Chinese republic – On 2 April 1921, Sun Yat Sen formally established the republican government at Canton. Sun Yat Sen himself was the head of this government. Sun Yat Sen himself was the head of this government. Sun Yat Sen went to Peking in 1925, 12 March, where he died an untimely death, calling upon his followers to carry on the revolution.

Sun Yat Sen’s death had two important but contradictory consequences.

He was transformed overnight into the legendary hero and patron saint of the Kuo Min Tang and Nationalist China. All doubts about his wisdom were laid at rest. His past mistakes were forgotten and he came to be regarded as the fountain of all wisdom. This together with Russian influence and direction, transformed the Kuo Min Tang into a vital force in Chinese politics. Sun Yat Senism is a much more vital force than Sun Yat Sen had ever been. His three peoples principles became the nationalist bible.

His death opened the way for a conflict for leadership of the party and made it possible for the leaders, as part of this conflict, to split on doctrinal grounds. This was so because his views were so general and vague that they could be interpreted in many ways.

Conclusion – Sun Yat Sen became the embodiment of all the idealism within the nationalist movement.

The passing of Sun Yat Sen had pronounced conflicting effects upon the nationalist movement.

‘So long as Sun lived, his short comings, his mistakes and his lack of practical, political acumen had been obvious not only to his immediate followers but, also to his enemies. Now that he was gone all this was changed. The failures of the man whom many had regarded as visionary were forgotten’ – Clyde and Beers

As Confucious had become the sage of ancient China, so would Sun Yat Sen inherit the role of twentieth century China. Confucianism would give place to Sun Yat Senism.

Sun Yat Sen dreamt of a strong, modern Chinese Republic and fairly deserves the title of Father of Modern China.

Criticism – Many people criticize Sun’s ideology and misinterpret them finding them too ideological. On his death warlordism became prominent once again. At the Peking Conference they had asked for Suns help but on his death they approached Chiang Kai Shek and offered him financial help.

Today Kuo Min Tang is no longer in force, CCP rules.

Effects

1.    Overnight Sun Yat Sen became the father of Modern China

2.    People no longer criticized him. Moreover his principles became the Bible of Chinese democracy

3.    In 1940 he was declared the founder of Chinese Democracy

‘Sun Yat Sen left behind a rich legacy of patriotism, revolutionary will and indomitable spirit’ – Jiang Zemin

‘Inspite of all political disagreements all China agree on one thing Sun Yat Sen was the founding father of Modern China’ – F. Schumann and Osschellin.

 

 

 

 

 

CHINESE REVOLUTION OF 1911

By 1911, the Manchu Dynasty had ruled China for 267 years. It had recognized the superior cultural attainments of the conquered people and it had associated Chinese with Manchus in government. Thus the dynasty not only held the ‘Mandate of Heaven’ but also ruled at times with distinction. By mid 19^th century however, the Manchus faced economic problems at home and the impact of Western ideas. These conditions called for radical adjustment in China’s political, economic and social structure – adjustments which the Sino Manchu political hierarchy could neither conceive nor execute.

Underlying Causes of the Revolution

Political causes

In the latter half of the 19^th century the downfall of the Manchu dynasty appeared to be eminent. The government had suffered both military and diplomatic defeats. The Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-60), Sino Japanese War (1894-95) scramble for concessions had humiliated Chinese who believed that their rulers were ‘Sons of Heaven’ and that theirs was the most superior race.

The new century began with an even bigger blow, namely failure of the ‘Boxer Rebellion’ (1900-01) directed initially against foreigners and later against the Manchus. The rebellion failed to remove either from the position of power, not because the Manchu government asserted itself but because of the intervention of the imperialist powers. Now on the defensive, the Manchu dynasty could have been saved by dynamic leadership and constructive statesmanship. However, Tzu-His, the powerful Empress Dowager was determined to retain control and there was no long-term effective plan of action.

In 1908, within a short span of time, Emperor Kwang-Tsu and Tzu-Hsi passed away in quiet succession. Not anticipating her own death, Tzu-His, had chosen her three-year-old grandnephew Pu-yi as heir. The power vacuum created by her won sudden death was filled by Prince Chun, the new Emperors father who became the regent. He was a man lacking in political wisdom at a time when it was most needed by the government. The demand for reforms had been there before, but the earlier reform movements like the self-strengthening movement after the Second Opium War had been haphazard. Following the failure of the Boxer Rebellion, Tzu-Hsi had initiated reforms which really materialized during the last years of her reign and had to be continued by Prince Chun. He posed as the instrument of constitutional monarchy, but like Dowager was not very sincere.

In 1909, provincial assemblies were formed. This conservative body was expected to rubber stamp the governments decision but instead demands a responsible Cabinet that promised National Parliament should be convened in 1913 and not in 1917.

In May 1911, when a 13-member royal cabinet was created, it was noted that there were only four Chinese members. Thus, these reforms intensified the demands for cabinet.

The students sent abroad, the new armies being trained, and the political assemblies being set up in the provinces sooner or later turned against the very government that promoted the reforms.

By the 1900s society on the whole was unhappy. There were many reasons:

1.       Conservatives – The foundation of the Manchu rule was based on the support of the conservatives. But since the Manchus adopted a reform movement after the Boxer Rebellion, it alienated the conservatives.

2.       Reformers – They were unhappy because the reform program was not carried out totally. They felt that without the overthrow of the Manchus, progress would not be possible.

3.       Traders and merchants – They were dissatisfied because their interest where subordinate to Western interests.

4.       Peasants – were dissatisfied because heavy taxes were imposed on them.

5.       Students – Those students having Western education did not have any employment opportunities within the Chinese system.

The period from 1901 was marked by the introduction of some social, military and educational reforms.

Social reforms included a ban on opium and the binding of feet of small girls.

Educational reforms – Western education was introduced in schools and scholarships were given to students to go abroad. In 1905, the age old examination system was abolished.

Military reforms – Initially, in China, a National Army never existed. During wars, the feudal lords sent their armies to assist the Emperor. But now a National Army was formed.

Positive Impact of Reforms

Western education benefited the revolution because of new political thoughts and Western concepts of government. Since many thus educated were unemployed, they formed secret societies and started spreading revolutionary ideas.

The communication system had improved and helped the people to come together.

Negative impact of Reforms

All reforms need finance – like schools, scholarships, military, etc. This was solved by imposing taxes on the common people who were already overburdened. They therefore were not in favor of Empress Dowager

Economic causes

Economic problems were numerous. Expenditure had already exceeded income and after 1900 kept increasing. The government had to pay the indemnity for the wars lost. The economy was greatly influenced by the foreigners. Shipping, cotton yarn spinning, iron production, railways in China were in foreign hands. The imperialists dictated custom duties to be levied on goods thus depriving the government of an important source of revenue.

The government levied heavy taxes on its own population and also new ones. This created discontentment and the heavier burden was felt by the peasants. The years 1910-11 marked a culmination of a series of bad seasons, characterized by drought and floods. Famine conditions prevailed in some parts. Acute food shortage increased the suffering and anger of the people.

Another major problem was that of population. The Chinese believed that mans important duty was to have as many sons a possible for his own comfort and that of his ancestors. As the population increased, the basic necessities of life became more difficult to obtain. Hence there was an increase in crime. A possible solution was immigration but tradition demanded that the Chinese worship at ancestral tombs and in due course of time be buried there.

Those who did not go abroad, numbered 2 ½ million by 1911, and it is in fact, their wealth that financed the revolutionaries and their groups in 1911. But in China the internal conditions were not satisfactory. Thus, the large population also contributed to the economic problems faced by the State.

Emergence of revolutionary ideas.

In an environment of unrest, it was inevitable that anti-Manchu groups should emerge. Ideas of democracy, independence, swept through the minds of the young Chinese educated abroad or in the mission schools of China. During its 267 year rule, the Manchus had to deal with secret societies and rebellions against itself, but now in the twentieth century anti-Manchu propaganda attracted a wider audience.

Those seeking reform and those demanding a revolution were largely concentrating on Tokyo. The reformers headed by K’ang-Yu-Wei and his leading disciple Liang-Chi-Chao preached the doctrine of Constitutional Monarchy. The revolutionaries were led by Dr. Sun Yat Sen and they wanted a republic. The reformers were initially prominent and Tzu-Hsi introduced reforms. These however failed to have desired effects. Hence, the revolutionaries became more popular among the younger intellectuals and the overseas Chinese groups. Improved communication network like the railways, post and telegraph, the Chinese press helped to spread the message of revolution.

In China, people believed in the cyclical theory of History. As a particular dynasty weakens, there is struggle and chaos between different dynasties to come to power. Finally the most powerful is  the victorious. Dr. Sun Yat Sen felt that in the process, the common man is the loser and only solution to this was to form a feudal republic. Dr. Sun provided ideologies for the revolution.

Many secret societies were simultaneously working against the Manchus. So, what Dr. Sun did was, to avoid duplication of work h brought together these societies and established the Tung Meng Hui or Combined League Society, which came to be called the Mother of Chinese Revolution.

Immediate causes

Nationalization of Railways – Railway concession to foreigners was the most potent form of economic imperialism. Build with foreign loans, the Chinese lines were under foreign control. The Chinese could not collect taxes or income and properties of the railway. Even worse, foreign troops travelled by these lines and helped to increase foreign influence.

There was therefore a movement towards railroad construction by Chinese with Chinese funds. The construction would be on a provincial rather than a national basis. This was the plan for Hankow-Canton and Hankow-Szechwan Railway Line.

By 1909, it was clear that patriotism and enthusiasm was high, but the funds raised in the provinces were inadequate. The embarrassment was worsening of the financial situation. Provincial control over the railway would further undermine the central authority. Hence in 1909, the government decided to nationalize both the lines.

Chang-Chi-Chuan, a leading advocate of provincial control, had enjoyed the trust of provinces and had come to realise that the provinces were unable to build the line. Unfortunately he died.

Sheng-Suan-Huai – President of the Board of Communication, did not command the respect of the public. This contributed to provincial unrest.

Faced with rigorous opposition, the government agreed to compensate those who had invested in railways for Hunan and Hupeh, a compensation for Kwantung. For Szechuan, due to proven embarrassment only the capital amount and actual construction cost was offered. The treatment of the four provinces was therefore unequal and therefore considered to be unfair.

In September 1911, Szechuan witnessed rallies which soon became revolutionary in nature. To control the unrest, the part of the Hupeh new army was transferred to this province by the government. The rest of the army remained in Wuchang near Hankow.

WUCHANG REBELLION / DOUBLE TEN INCIDENT

The Tung Meng Hui activists were planning uprisings in major cities of Central Yangtse. They were particularly active in Hupeh. The student members were engaged in preparing bombs. On 9^th October there was an accidental bomb explosion at the headquarters of a revolutionary group in Hankow. Police raids led to the arrest of 32 revolutionaries and the seizure of weapons and documents. Included in the letter were the lists of members of the group. Among these names were those of the members of the Hupeh National Army, some of whom were still in Wuchang. Fearing arrest they revolted on 10^th October 1911. The rebels captured Hankow, Hanyong and Wuchang in a short time. the revolt spread to cities in Central and South China. Shanghai, Canton and Nanking declared their independence. This revolt was the beginning of the revolution. Hence the day is referred to as “Double Ten’ i.e. tenth day of the tenth month.

THE REVOLUTION

The WuChang soldiers, rebels forced Col Zi Yuan Huno to lead them. The arrest in the Southern provinces caused by the railroad province resulted in the spread of the revolt, up and down the river Yangtse. Soon all the Southern provinces were involved. In the North, only Shensi province participated.

The Wuchang revolutionaries were replaced by the Shanghai Revolutionaries. Dr. Sun Yat Sen returned to China in December and became the provincial president of the Republic which was officially inaugurated on 1^st January 1912 at Nanking.

Meanwhile in the North, an aggressive National Assembly compelled Prince Chuan to argue to establish a genuine constitutional government. This assembly had been recovered on 22 October 1911. To control the unrest, those who had been forced to retire by Prince Chun were persuaded to head the army. He demanded and was given dictatorial powers. On 8^th November 1911 he was elected premier by the National Assembly. Yuan Shik Kai exploited the situation to the fullest.

Neither the revolutionaries in the South nor Yuan Shik Kai group in the North, desired a prolonged financially crippling civil war. Negotiations began between the two groups. Aware of Yuan’s ruling superiority, Sun Yat Sen was willing to step down provided China became a Republic.

On 12 February 1912, Yuan Shik Kai ensured that the Royal Family issued abolition edicts. Emperor Pu-yi retained his title and residence in part of the forbidden city. The Nanking Assembly elected Yuan Shik Kai as the first Provincial President and Dr. Sun Yat Sen stepped down. Thus, China was remitted as a Republic under Yuan Shik Kai. China’s 25 dynasties, namely the Manchus, had its ‘pre-ordained finale’. The Manchus had lost ‘the Mandate of Heaven’ forever.