By 1911, the Manchu Dynasty had ruled China for 267 years. It had recognized the superior cultural attainments of the conquered people and it had associated Chinese with Manchus in government. Thus the dynasty not only held the ‘Mandate of Heaven’ but also ruled at times with distinction. By mid 19th century however, the Manchus faced economic problems at home and the impact of Western ideas. These conditions called for radical adjustment in China’s political, economic and social structure – adjustments which the Sino Manchu political hierarchy could neither conceive nor execute.
Underlying Causes of the Revolution
Political causes
In the latter half of the 19th century the downfall
of the Manchu dynasty appeared to be eminent. The government had suffered both military
and diplomatic defeats. The Opium Wars (1839-42 and 1856-60), Sino Japanese War
(1894-95) scramble for concessions had humiliated Chinese who believed that their
rulers were ‘Sons of Heaven’ and that theirs was the most superior race.
The new century began with an even bigger blow, namely
failure of the ‘Boxer Rebellion’ (1900-01) directed initially against foreigners
and later against the Manchus. The rebellion failed to remove either from the
position of power, not because the Manchu government asserted itself but
because of the intervention of the imperialist powers. Now on the defensive,
the Manchu dynasty could have been saved by dynamic leadership and constructive
statesmanship. However, Tzu-His, the powerful Empress Dowager was determined to
retain control and there was no long-term effective plan of action.
In 1908, within a short span of time, Emperor Kwang-Tsu and Tzu-Hsi
passed away in quiet succession. Not anticipating her own death, Tzu-His, had
chosen her three-year-old grandnephew Pu-yi as heir. The power vacuum created
by her won sudden death was filled by Prince Chun, the new Emperors father who
became the regent. He was a man lacking in political wisdom at a time when it
was most needed by the government. The demand for reforms had been there before,
but the earlier reform movements like the self-strengthening movement after the
Second Opium War had been haphazard. Following the failure of the Boxer Rebellion,
Tzu-Hsi had initiated reforms which really materialized during the last years
of her reign and had to be continued by Prince Chun. He posed as the instrument
of constitutional monarchy, but like Dowager was not very sincere.
In 1909, provincial assemblies were formed. This
conservative body was expected to rubber stamp the governments decision but
instead demands a responsible Cabinet that promised National Parliament should
be convened in 1913 and not in 1917.
In May 1911, when a 13-member royal cabinet was created, it
was noted that there were only four Chinese members. Thus, these reforms
intensified the demands for cabinet.
The students sent abroad, the new armies being trained, and
the political assemblies being set up in the provinces sooner or later turned against
the very government that promoted the reforms.
By the 1900s society on the whole was unhappy. There were many
reasons:
1.
Conservatives – The foundation of the Manchu
rule was based on the support of the conservatives. But since the Manchus adopted
a reform movement after the Boxer Rebellion, it alienated the conservatives.
2.
Reformers – They were unhappy because the reform
program was not carried out totally. They felt that without the overthrow of the
Manchus, progress would not be possible.
3.
Traders and merchants – They were dissatisfied because
their interest where subordinate to Western interests.
4.
Peasants – were dissatisfied because heavy taxes
were imposed on them.
5.
Students – Those students having Western education
did not have any employment opportunities within the Chinese system.
The period from 1901 was marked by the introduction of some
social, military and educational reforms.
Social reforms included a ban on opium and the binding of
feet of small girls.
Educational reforms – Western education was introduced in
schools and scholarships were given to students to go abroad. In 1905, the age old
examination system was abolished.
Military reforms – Initially, in China, a National Army
never existed. During wars, the feudal lords sent their armies to assist the
Emperor. But now a National Army was formed.
Positive Impact of Reforms
Western education benefited the revolution because of new political
thoughts and Western concepts of government. Since many thus educated were
unemployed, they formed secret societies and started spreading revolutionary ideas.
The communication system had improved and helped the people to
come together.
Negative impact of Reforms
All reforms need finance – like schools, scholarships,
military, etc. This was solved by imposing taxes on the common people who were
already overburdened. They therefore were not in favor of Empress Dowager
Economic causes
Economic problems were numerous. Expenditure had already
exceeded income and after 1900 kept increasing. The government had to pay the
indemnity for the wars lost. The economy was greatly influenced by the foreigners.
Shipping, cotton yarn spinning, iron production, railways in China were in foreign
hands. The imperialists dictated custom duties to be levied on goods thus
depriving the government of an important source of revenue.
The government levied heavy taxes on its own population and
also new ones. This created discontentment and the heavier burden was felt by
the peasants. The years 1910-11 marked a culmination of a series of bad seasons,
characterized by drought and floods. Famine conditions prevailed in some parts.
Acute food shortage increased the suffering and anger of the people.
Another major problem was that of population. The Chinese
believed that mans important duty was to have as many sons a possible for his
own comfort and that of his ancestors. As the population increased, the basic
necessities of life became more difficult to obtain. Hence there was an
increase in crime. A possible solution was immigration but tradition demanded
that the Chinese worship at ancestral tombs and in due course of time be buried
there.
Those who did not go abroad, numbered 2 ½ million by 1911,
and it is in fact, their wealth that financed the revolutionaries and their groups
in 1911. But in China the internal conditions were not satisfactory. Thus, the
large population also contributed to the economic problems faced by the State.
Emergence of revolutionary ideas.
In an environment of unrest, it was inevitable that
anti-Manchu groups should emerge. Ideas of democracy, independence, swept
through the minds of the young Chinese educated abroad or in the mission
schools of China. During its 267 year rule, the Manchus had to deal with secret
societies and rebellions against itself, but now in the twentieth century
anti-Manchu propaganda attracted a wider audience.
Those seeking reform and those demanding a revolution were
largely concentrating on Tokyo. The reformers headed by K’ang-Yu-Wei and his
leading disciple Liang-Chi-Chao preached the doctrine of Constitutional Monarchy.
The revolutionaries were led by Dr. Sun Yat Sen and they wanted a republic. The
reformers were initially prominent and Tzu-Hsi introduced reforms. These however
failed to have desired effects. Hence, the revolutionaries became more popular
among the younger intellectuals and the overseas Chinese groups. Improved communication
network like the railways, post and telegraph, the Chinese press helped to
spread the message of revolution.
In China, people believed in the cyclical theory of History.
As a particular dynasty weakens, there is struggle and chaos between different
dynasties to come to power. Finally the most powerful is the victorious. Dr. Sun Yat Sen felt that in
the process, the common man is the loser and only solution to this was to form
a feudal republic. Dr. Sun provided ideologies for the revolution.
Many secret societies were simultaneously working against
the Manchus. So, what Dr. Sun did was, to avoid duplication of work h brought
together these societies and established the Tung Meng Hui or Combined League Society,
which came to be called the Mother of Chinese Revolution.
Immediate causes
Nationalization of Railways – Railway concession to
foreigners was the most potent form of economic imperialism. Build with foreign
loans, the Chinese lines were under foreign control. The Chinese could not
collect taxes or income and properties of the railway. Even worse, foreign troops
travelled by these lines and helped to increase foreign influence.
There was therefore a movement towards railroad construction
by Chinese with Chinese funds. The construction would be on a provincial rather
than a national basis. This was the plan for Hankow-Canton and Hankow-Szechwan
Railway Line.
By 1909, it was clear that patriotism and enthusiasm was high,
but the funds raised in the provinces were inadequate. The embarrassment was
worsening of the financial situation. Provincial control over the railway would
further undermine the central authority. Hence in 1909, the government decided
to nationalize both the lines.
Chang-Chi-Chuan, a leading advocate of provincial control,
had enjoyed the trust of provinces and had come to realise that the provinces
were unable to build the line. Unfortunately he died.
Sheng-Suan-Huai – President of the Board of Communication,
did not command the respect of the public. This contributed to provincial
unrest.
Faced with rigorous opposition, the government agreed to compensate
those who had invested in railways for Hunan and Hupeh, a compensation for
Kwantung. For Szechuan, due to proven embarrassment only the capital amount and
actual construction cost was offered. The treatment of the four provinces was
therefore unequal and therefore considered to be unfair.
In September 1911, Szechuan witnessed rallies which soon
became revolutionary in nature. To control the unrest, the part of the Hupeh
new army was transferred to this province by the government. The rest of the
army remained in Wuchang near Hankow.
WUCHANG REBELLION / DOUBLE TEN INCIDENT
The Tung Meng Hui activists were planning uprisings in major
cities of Central Yangtse. They were particularly active in Hupeh. The student
members were engaged in preparing bombs. On 9th October there was an
accidental bomb explosion at the headquarters of a revolutionary group in
Hankow. Police raids led to the arrest of 32 revolutionaries and the seizure of
weapons and documents. Included in the letter were the lists of members of the
group. Among these names were those of the members of the Hupeh National Army,
some of whom were still in Wuchang. Fearing arrest they revolted on 10th
October 1911. The rebels captured Hankow, Hanyong and Wuchang in a short time.
the revolt spread to cities in Central and South China. Shanghai, Canton and
Nanking declared their independence. This revolt was the beginning of the
revolution. Hence the day is referred to as “Double Ten’ i.e. tenth day of the
tenth month.
THE REVOLUTION
The WuChang soldiers, rebels forced Col Zi Yuan Huno to lead
them. The arrest in the Southern provinces caused by the railroad province
resulted in the spread of the revolt, up and down the river Yangtse. Soon all
the Southern provinces were involved. In the North, only Shensi province
participated.
The Wuchang revolutionaries were replaced by the Shanghai
Revolutionaries. Dr. Sun Yat Sen returned to China in December and became the
provincial president of the Republic which was officially inaugurated on 1st
January 1912 at Nanking.
Meanwhile in the North, an aggressive National Assembly
compelled Prince Chuan to argue to establish a genuine constitutional
government. This assembly had been recovered on 22 October 1911. To control the
unrest, those who had been forced to retire by Prince Chun were persuaded to
head the army. He demanded and was given dictatorial powers. On 8th
November 1911 he was elected premier by the National Assembly. Yuan Shik Kai
exploited the situation to the fullest.
Neither the revolutionaries in the South nor Yuan Shik Kai
group in the North, desired a prolonged financially crippling civil war. Negotiations
began between the two groups. Aware of Yuan’s ruling superiority, Sun Yat Sen
was willing to step down provided China became a Republic.
On 12 February 1912, Yuan Shik Kai ensured that the Royal
Family issued abolition edicts. Emperor Pu-yi retained his title and residence
in part of the forbidden city. The Nanking Assembly elected Yuan Shik Kai as
the first Provincial President and Dr. Sun Yat Sen stepped down. Thus, China
was remitted as a Republic under Yuan Shik Kai. China’s 25 dynasties, namely
the Manchus, had its ‘pre-ordained finale’. The Manchus had lost ‘the Mandate
of Heaven’ forever.
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