TYPES OF SOCIETIES

Social sciences are concerned with the various aspects of human behavior, the interrelationship between them. Man has lived in close association with other beings in order to satisfy various biological and psychological needs and that is why man cannot be thought of separately from his social environment i.e., society.

Definition of Society: Society is a relatively independent self-perpetuating human group which occupies territory, shares a culture and has most of its association withing the group.

Suggestions of the above definition:

People must occupy a common territory. Their territory may change with physical boundaries or even political controls. E.g. We have Aryan Society or Dravidian Society though these old boundaries no longer exist.

Secondly, people who share a territory must interact with each other. Human beings are social in nature, therefore, they should have meaningful interaction with each other. Meaningful interaction will lead to meaningful relationships between individuals or groups.

Thirdly, the people who share a territory should have a common culture. They should also have a shared sense of membership and consciousness of the group. This provides a common thread of identity, and a feeling of belonging to the group.

Types of societies: It has taken hundreds and thousands of years for societies to evolve to their present form. Yet, physically modern man is only forty thousand years old. In the past six thousand years there has been an emergence of division of labor, specialization in social, economic and political institutions. It is only after the industrial revolution about 250 years ago that great advances have been made in the field of science and technology.

Thus, thousands of human societies have existed in different forms and at different stages like biological organisms, societies also have to adapt to their natural environment. Man has exploited food and other resources for the satisfaction of their needs. Different societies use different strategies for subsistence. Those societies with better productive strategies (technology) tend to grow larger in size than societies with simple technologies.

We have to study the evolution of societies through different forms in the context of the specific environment and the strategies used to exploit the environment thus, we have different societies on the basis of different subsistence strategies.

Hunting and gathering societies: is the oldest type of society. Very few societies in this category exist now. The Aranda Tribe of Central Australian Desert and the San tribe of the Kalahari dessert are examples of this type of society.

Hunting and gathering societies are mainly nomadic in nature. They live in very small and scattered groups. This is because they depend on whatever food is available in their environment on a day to day basis. Since the groups are scattered there is very little interaction between them.

The hunting and gathering way of life has a deep influence on the social structure and culture of these societies. The social structure and culture is simple and least diversified. They live in small primary groups. These groups are organsed on the basis of kinship. Family I sthe center of the social structure. In fact, family is the only clearly defined institution in the hunting and gathering societies. The family performs all functions like economic functions, child rearing and educating the young and protecting of group members etc. Political institutions, excepting the institution of headman, are absent. Even the headman has limited powers. Decisions are taken at group level.

Economic life is simple. Individuals gather food on a day to day basis. There is almost no hoarding and preserving for the future. They move from one place to another for food. They lead a nomadic life. Thus, they have very little possessions worth calling ‘property’.

Technology is also very simple and rudimentary like bow, arrow and digging sticks. There is very little division of labor in these societies. If it exists, it is only on the basis of age and sex of the individual.

The group members in hunting and gathering societies share almost identical values and beliefs. Their religious life revolves around unseen spirits (Animism), belief in nature (Naturism) and belief in symbols (Totemism).

 

Pastoral societies: Pastoral is that stage when hunting and gathering groups began to domesticate animals. This was adopted by the groups as an alternative mode of subsistence in deserts and other regions where plant food gathering became unsuitable. Instead animals like goats and sheep were available as a more or less stable source of food. This mode of subsistence existed around 12,000 years ago in some parts of Africa and near Eastern countries.

Economic life: The pastoral society is more productive than hunting and gathering society. Domesticated animals provide stable food supply. Pastoralists are also nomadic in nature as they move from one place to another looking for new grazing grounds for their animals. Their material possessions include tents, woven carpets, some simple vessels and their animals.

Conflicts occur in this society because of control over grazing grounds. Some individuals become wealthier than others. They become powerful and patterns of chieftains and slavery also appear. As far as their values and belief systems are concerned, the pastoralists believe in god to be worshipped in order to get care and protection.

The pastoral subsistence mode of these societies thus provide for complex social structure, with larger population and appearance of political and economic institutions.

 

Horticultural societies: emerged almost at the same time as pastoral societies. While the pastoralists follow the mode of domestication the animals, horticultural societies domesticate plants. This depends on environmental factors like land for grazing, rain and soil conditions, fertility of soil, etc. They use rudimentary technology like hoes, digging stick and slash and burn cultivation.

In horticultural societies there is steady supply of food and even a surplus. This helps to support a larger population and more productive individuals with more surplus become powerful. Since there is surplus food, people are no longer engaged in food production. Such people took to the roles of shaman, trader, craft worker and so on. Disputes always arise between groups over material possessions.

The religious beliefs seen in horticultural societies are different from that of hunters and gatherers. They believe in the worship and propitiation of gods. The practice of cannibalism and head-hunting is common among these societies.

The horticultural people live in relatively permanent settlement for a few years as a result of which they can create houses, stone sculptures, thrones, etc. Because of conquest and trade links there is greater interaction between people in this society. Economic and political institutions also become well-developed in the horticultural society.

 

Agricultural societies: emerged around five thousand years ago with the invention of the plough. The agricultural societies are permanent settlements of people who cultivate the same land continuously. They use animal power for cultivation of food grains, cereals and crops. They periodically re-fertilize the soil to improve and increase its fertility. Production of food materials increase several times so that a surplus is created. Therefore, people could take up diverse occupations.

An important development in this society is the development of elaborate political institutions with more property and wealth, there is greater conflict and warfare. Here hereditary monarchies tend to emerge. As the agricultural societies advance, the political institutions become more elaborate. Elaborate courts, governments, bureaucracy, and state in established. As wealth gets concentrated in the hands of a few individuals, inequality and social classes emerge.

Religion emerged as a separate social institution with regular officials to run religious duties and who also hold great political influence in society.

Economic institutions also appear when economic activities have become complex. There is collection of revenue, taxation by the authority and maintenance of records. Writing was also a turning point of these societies. There is diversification of activities and building of artifacts such as paintings and statues, public buildings, palaces, monuments, etc.

The result of all the developments is that the structure and culture in these societies are more complex. There is emergence of greater social inequality and heterogeneity of culture.

The agricultural societies grew in size and complexity, socially, economically, and politically creating conditions for the industrial revolution which led to the emergence of industrial societies.

 

Industrial societies: emerged with the Industrial Revolution in England. This catapulted human societies into a radically different order of industrial social system.

The industrial societies are based on advanced technology and mechanized methods for the large-scale production of agricultural and nonagricultural goods.

Distinction between pre-industrial and industrial societies: The various aspects of industrial societies are radically different from pre-industrial societies. We find major differences in regard to mode of production, political system, education system, etc. between the two societies.

Agriculturalism and Industrialism: The pre-industrial societies are characterized by agriculturist i.e., traditional, simple, rural features. The industrial societies are characterized by industrial i.e., modern, complex and urban.

Social structure: in pre-industrial societies is relatively simple with little division of labor, and less role differentiation. The basic institutions are family and kinship, other institutions are either absent or exist in very basic forms.

Industrial societies have high degree of division of labor and therefore specialization. There is status structure and more role differentiation. Other institutions like economic, religious and political institutions take over the functions of society.

Status system: Statuses in the pre-industrial societies are ‘ascribed’ statuses. These are usually determined by birth and the individual’s life is more or less predetermined. In the industrial societies one sees ‘achieved’ statuses. These are achieved through hard work and individual capability. 

Social interaction: In the simple societies social interaction is close, personal, intimate, face-to-face in nature. The primary group is small, permanent. In the industrial societies social interaction is impersonal, and formal in nature. The secondary group is large and is characterized by anonymity.

Social and cultural values: The traditional societies are more or less homogeneous. They have the same norms, values, customs, rituals and ceremonies. Industrial societies are characterized by homogeneity. They have different cultures, norms, values and beliefs.

Behavior norms: Customs and traditions, norms and values control and regulate social behavior and provide the standard of behavior. Group welfare is more important than individuals’ interests. In industrial societies norms and values are no longer strong enough to control the individuals. These secondary means of control like the law, police and court become predominant.

Social change: It is not accepted easily in rural societies. The rate of social change is slow. In Industrial societies rapid social change is a normal and desired one. Change is always welcome and viewed as progress where as in simple societies it is viewed with suspicion.

 

Post Industrial Societies: The term post-industrial society was coined by the sociologist Daniel Bell in the early 1960s. He used the term post industrial society to describe the form of society that would replace the familiar industrial society of our era. In the Coming of Post-Industrial Society: A Venture in Social Forecasting – Daniel Bell tries to make some future predictions. Bell said that in the next thirty to fifty years, we will see the emergence of the post-industrial society.

This type of society has five major components:

The first and the simplest characteristic of a post-industrial society is that the majority of the labor force is no longer engaged in agriculture or manufacturing but in services as trade, finance, transport, health, recreation, research, education, government, commerce.  

Secondly, in post-industrial society there is change in occupational distributions throughout the years there has been a growth of professional and technical employment i.e., jobs that usually require some college education. Bell has observed that the growth rate of professionals, technicians, scientists and engineers has been more than the labor force.

Thirdly, in a post-industrial society problems are not solved through trial and error methods, but by using the theoretical approach. Earlier inventors used to be generalists who knew something about many different fields. Today so many specialized fields exist. Specialists are trained in certain specific areas only. One effect of this trend i.e., invention by specialists is that science based industries such as computer and electronics are beginning to dominate our society.

Another feature of this society is that there will be planning of technology. This will be done to avoid the possible negative side effects of the new technologies e.g. Agricultural production increased due to use of cheap chemical fertilizer. However, the negative side effect has been that nitrate residues are found in the rivers. Also, DDT was used as a pesticide to save crops, but it destroyed wild life and birds.

Bell argues that if these technologies were assessed before they were introduced then alternative technologies or arrangements could be made. He feels that post-industrial society will plan their technologies more carefully.

The fifth element found in post-industrial society is the rise of a new intellectual technology. As society and its inventions become more complex, it is more difficult to understand them intuitively. New intellectual technologies have arisen to help us reach rational decisions in situations which are complex and uncertain. So instead of using institutions to solve problems, we will use information theory, cybernetics, decision theory, game theory, or utility theory. Computers are designed in such a way that they give use to a wide range of options. According to Daniel Bell there are too many variables and too much information for the mind to hold. Hence there will be a need for intellectual technology.

Daniel Bells work is sometimes referred as ‘social forecasting’. It is easy to criticize Bells work now, but the work is important for the questions it raises and the approach it takes, as well as the forecasts it makes.

INDIAN REGIONAL JOURNALISM

 Enlisted below are articles that are a must read for every Journalism student dealing with Indian Regional Journalism whether you are learning about its History and Development of just reading to know more. Click on the links beside the titles/topics

Speaking in Tongues (About Hindi Newspapers adn Hindi Media and its influence in Indian Society): Hindi Media - Speaking in Tongues

The Great Indian Newspaper Revolution: India's Newspaper Revolution: Capitalism, Politics and the Indian Language Press, 1977-99:Indian Newspaper Revolution

A Sturdy pillar or a Decrepit Column by Arvind Lavakare: Indian Journalism

India: Hindutva Agenda of Hindi Press: HIndutva Agenda of Hindi Press

India is poised for a print revolution, thanks to Indian Language Newspapers: Indian Language Newspapers - Print Revolution

TRADEMARKS ACT 1999

 

The Trademarks Act 1999

 

The Trade and Merchandise Marks Act, 1958

It had served its purpose and review of the existing law was necessary because of developments in trading and commercial practices, increasing globalization of trade and industry, etc. a need for simplification and harmonization of trademark and to give effect tp important judicial decision.

Hence the Trademark Act, 1999 incorporated the following:

1.      The registration of trademarks for services in addition to goods.

2.      Registration of trademarks which are imitation of well known trademarks not to be permitted.

3.      Simplified procedure for registration with equal rights.

4.      Enhancing punishment for the offences relating to trade marks.

5.      Appointing an Appellate Board for speedy disposal of appeals.

6.      The final authority for registration of certification trademarks to the Registrar instead of the Central Government.

Certain Draft Rules were published in the exercise of powers given in the Trademarks Act 1999. These Draft Rules were called the Trademarks Rules 2002. These rules give in detail the explanation of the terms used, along with the procedure for registration of Trademarks application, about renewal, etc.

 

 

PUBLIC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM | PDS | INDIA PDS

 

PDS (Public Distribution System) India

India’s PDS supplies subsidized food grains and other essential items commodities through a network of ‘ration shops’. There are approximately 4,62,000 Fair Price Shops. About 160 million families purchase commodities from ration shops each year. The PDS is enormous in terms of expenditure, reach and number of agencies involved in its operation.

State governments issue ration cards to their residents and decide on the quantity consumers are entitled to.

Many problems have plagued its operation. PDS suffers from chronic management shortcomings, the extent and timing of procurement, poor forecasting capacity and antiquated logistical system to support storage and delivery functions, inappropriate product mix and cost inefficiencies.

Many problems stem from systematic corruption. 3.1% of food grains 36% of sugar gets diverted to the Black Market through agents and middlemen. Buyers are made to sign that they have bought 10 kgs when they have bought only 5 kgs. Corruption also plagues the process of issuing ration cards.

Today the ration card is used only by people who have no piped gas or cylinder gas. Kerosene is issued only to non-users of gas for cooking. The ration card is a very useful identity card whether rations are allowed or not.

The Government has revived the long defunct PDS even for APL (Above Poverty Live) ration card holders.

Consumers however were disappointed sugar (market price Rs. 35 per kg, ration price Rs. 20). One card was entitled to 2 kgs was ok, but not so with wheat and dal. The market price of tur dal was Rs. 90 kg, the PDS price is Rs. 55 per kg (1 kg per card). But consumers complained it had other grains and chaff mixed in it and took a long time to cook.

Wheat was full of stones and insects. The rice supplied could not be cooked and palm oil was used not for cooking but to light diyas.

The government claims to have spent 122 crores a month.

WORKING CLASS MOVEMENTS

The Industrial Revolution resulted in the emergence of two new social classes in society – the capitalists who were the owners of industries and controlled trade and commerce, and the industrial working class who worked for a wage. Their conditions of work and living were miserable and they had no rights. They were frequently without jobs.

The workers gradually began to organize themselves into trade unions to protect their common rights though for a long time there were laws against workers organizing themselves into unions.

The working-class movement received great impetus under the influence of the ideas of socialism. The ideas of socialism, which grew as a reaction against het evils of capitalism, appealed particularly to the workers that helped them to organize themselves as a distinct political force. The socialist movements in the second half of the nineteenth century strove not only to promote the economic demands of the workers but also to mobilize them to overthrow the system of capitalism itself. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels played a leading role in giving a scientific shape to the ideas of socialism and in organizing the socialist movement in many countries of Europe.

Many groups and organizations were formed to spread socialist ideas and to organize workers e.g., League of the Just, which gave the slogan ‘All men are brothers’.

One of the most important events in the history of working-class movement was the formation of the International Working Men’s Association (1864) popularly known as the First International. It played an important role in creating bonds of international solidarity by arranging aid from workers of many countries in support of the worker’s struggle in any particular country. Though its membership was not large it was feared by the rulers for the sense of worker’s solidarity it had succeeded in creating.

To unite the socialist parties in various countries into an international organization, a Congress was held in Paris on 14^th July 1889. It was at this Congress that the Second International was formed. It was decided that on 1^st May a great international demonstration of the workers would be organized. On that day, millions of workers struck work all over Europe and America and held massive demonstrations. From that day the 1^st of May is overserved every year as the International Working-Class Day all over the world.

The success of the Russian Revolution gave new life to the socialist and working-class movement. Communist parties were formed in most countries of the world and were affiliated to the Comintern, which became a common forum where questions of policies were discussed, and common policies were framed for worldwide acceptance. Though the Comintern was dissolved, working class movements continued with the help of trade unions in different arts of the world. In the meantime, laws were passed in many countries against some of the worst effects of industrialization and capital exploitation.

Thus, by the second half of the twentieth century, working class movement became a worldwide phenomenon. The emergence of the USSR as a great world power and the spread of communism in many parts of the world particularly in Eastern Europe provided a new dimension to trade unionism and the rise of working class as a major force in every country.

BLACK CONSCIOUSNESS

Black consciousness is a name given to a political movement in South Africa which emerged int eh late 1960s and early 1970s. the movement contained several organizations and factions. The common features included a rejection of apartheid, a stress on the value of black cultural identity, and the goal of comprehensive transfer of power to the black majority. By the mid-1970s it was increasingly subject to state repression: Steve Biko, a prominent movement figure died in September 1977 in police detention from injuries sustained under torture, and in October 1977 black consciousness groups were banned.

By the early 1960s, every leader of the anti-apartheid movement including its leader Nelson Mandela was arrested and sentenced to long-term imprisonment. The struggle against apartheid and the white minority rule was led for many decades by the African National Congress (ANC). In 1955, a Congress of the People was held which adopted ‘The Freedom Charter’ laying down the basic objectives of the South African people’s struggle.

The ANC followed a policy of peaceful nonviolent struggle. In the face of the brute violence with which all peaceful protest was suppressed, it decided to launch an armed struggle. It trained it guerillas and soldiers inside South Africa and in the independent state of Africa. Some of the prominent leaders of the ANC had been able to escape arrest. A powerful underground movement was built up and many daring acts of sabotage were committed.

With her almost total isolation in the world and the growing strength of the struggle inside the country, the white rulers of South Africa were forced to open negotiations to end the policy of apartheid. Nelson Mandela, the leader and Vice President of ANC was released from jail after about 26 years in 1990 and the ban on ANC was lifted. This was followed by the end of some elements of the policy of apartheid such as segregation in public placed. Despite many roadblocks constitutional talks for ending the policy of apartheid continued between the white government and the ANC leadership, which finally led to the election of a new multi-racial parliament on the basis of one-person, one-vote in April 1994. The election of Nelson Mandela as the first black president leading a multi-racial government in May 1994 sounded the death knell of apartheid in South Africa.

AMERICAN IMPERIALISM

The thirteen American colonies on the East coast of North America had won their independence from England and emerged as the United States of America. Territorial expansion took place at the cost of American tribes who resisted but were defeated.

There was civil war between North America and South America. The southern states were defeated and slavery was abolished.

USA was the largest producer of iron and steel in the world and became a leader in every field of industry. But the growth of US economy went unnoticed as US herself had huge markets for her products. There was also a general lack of interest in world affairs.

1890s – The transformation of USA from an agricultural to an industrial country was mainly responsible for the rise and growth of American Imperialism. To support imperialism, America began talking about the duty of civilized nations to uplift the less fortunate ones and ‘the laws of nature’ according to which strong countries dominated weak countries.

Expansion in Pacific – Germany, Britain and America fought among themselves for the Hawaiian Islands. To avoid war they divided the islands among themselves.

Cuba and Philippines – were Spanish colonies. USA attacked Spain and annexed these territories.

China – The European powers had divided China into spheres of influence. Fearing that she would be left out, USA gave the ‘Open Door Policy’ according to which all countries would trade equally in China.

Boxer Rebellion – Chinese fought against foreigners. USA joined the other Europeans in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion.

1900s – USA was aware of being a world power. President Theodore Roosevelt gave the ‘Big Stick Policy’ based on the principle ‘Speak softly and carry a big stick’. He was afraid of Russia’s interest in China and was happy when Japan attacked Russian fleet. When Russia was defeated in the Russo Japanese War, he persuaded Russia to recognize Japanese territorial rights. He entered a secret agreement with Japan. This gave USA the right to trade freely in the regions owned by Japan. This proved costly to USA because later we see that Japan becomes the main rival of USA.

Latin America was USA’s special sphere of interest. Roosevelt declared that US had the right not only to opposed European intervention in the American continent but to interfere in the internal affairs too.

Panama Canal – The French company completed 40% construction of the Panama Canal in Colombia. USA bought French holdings but the Colombian government did not agree to US terms and conditions. US called Colombians ‘bandits’ and ‘blackmailers’ and launched a revolution in Panama. US troops landed in Colombia. After three days, Panama was recognized as an independent nation and a puppet government signed an agreement with US granting US favorable terms on the Panama Canal.

1914 World War I - US decides to enter the war claiming that it wanted ‘to make the world safe for democracy’ and ‘joined the war to end wars’. USA supplied goods, food, arms and ammunition to the allies. Therefore, US economy prospered. This was used to defeat the central powers.

Treaty of Versailles – US President Wilson played an important role in formulating the Treaty of Versailles, but the treaty was rejected by the US Senate and USA refused to join the League of Nations as she did not want to be dominated by any other power.

World War II – US announced neutrality, but continued to be the main supplier of arms and ammunition to the British and other allied nations. In 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor and US declared war on Japan.

After World War II US emerged as the strongest military and economic power in the world. US viewed herself as ‘a moral force’ in the world and Americans called this period the ‘American century’.

US and Soviet Russia – To check the growth of Soviet Russia, US created NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). The Cold War period witnessed Americas growing economic and military involvement in all places (Korea, Vietnam, Cuba, Iran, Israel, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia). US acted as a Global Policeman, disciplining, and punishing ‘errant’ regimes. The breakup of Soviet Russia made USA the undisputed leader of the world.

The Gulf War in the early 1900s and the more recent bombings of Afghanistan and the war against Iraq without UN authorization are best examples of American Imperialism.