SPIRAL OF SILENCE

Elisabeth Noelle-Neumann came up with the idea of 'the spiral of silence' in 'Return to the concept of Powerful Mass Media' published in 'Studies of Broadcasting: An International Annual of Broadcasting Science' (1973) e.d. H. Eguchi and K. Satta.

According to her thesis the mass media are able to produce powerful effects on the audience because of three traits: cumulation, ubiquity and consonance.

Cumulation signifies that the effect of the media increases as time moves on.

Ubiquity refers to the ever present quality of the media.

Consonance means the media present the world in a unified manner.

Noelle-Neumann formulated this idea while analyzing the opinion polls in Germany which were at variance with other data collected to predict poll results. It was argued that the findings were puzzling because the media were offering a misleading view of the opinion polls by promoting the opinions held by those who did not belong to the 'silent majority'. 

GATEKEEPING

A term that refers to key personnel involved in the decision-making processes of news production. Originally the role was understood as being situated between news gatherers (journalists) and the public: editors kept the gate - opening or closing it for each story as they decided which information was news worthy. Recent adaptation of the term has seen it applied to managers of the media, as well as news wire services and owners of media channels.

The importance of gatekeeper theory rests on an understanding of the conditions under which these personnel make their decisions. While practioners understand their role as a professional one, analysts argue that gate keepers are influenced by a range of practices, and these in turn influence their decisions. They include personal ideologies and values, as well as organisational and structural procedures. While the term is usually applied to media involved in the production of news, it is possible to consider its relevance elsewhere. Film studio executives, television program - buyers and radio play-list decision makers could also be understood to be fulfilling the role traditionally set out by gatekeeper theory.

New media technologies such as digital broadcasting, pay-per-view and the internet are seen as challenging the gatekeeping role. But this may prove to be a Utopian assumption. Certainly, with the internet, search engines can be understood as digital gatekeepers. Performing the role of deciding what information is relevant to your query, search engines may not be bound by personal ideologies, yet they are a product of the structural and organisational procedures of the provider who supplies them. They may also be subject to legislation that requires them to filter information, thereby causing them to perform a gatekeeping role on behalf of the state.

Further, it is clear that there is economic value in gatekeeping: people want information checked, evaluated and edited for them by professionals. Despite the huge amount of freely available information on the Internet, many of the most popular websites are those that edit, organise and manage information on behalf of consumers; they belong to brand name media titles such as major newspapers and TV stations.

VISUAL IMPAIRMENT / VISION IMPAIRMENT

Visual impairment or vision impairment is a decreased ability to see to a degree that causes problems not fixable by usual means, such as glasses.

Total blindness is the inability to tell light from dark or the total inability to see.

In some cases, we also include those who have a decreased ability to see because they do not have access to glasses or contact lenses.

CAUSES OF VISUAL / VISION IMPAIRMENT AND BLINDNESS

-          Injury to the eyes – could happen due to an accident, while playing or at work. Injuries to the cornea are the most common cause of loss of vision.

-       Inherited blindness – Retinitis pigmentosa is the common cause of inherited blindness.

-    Eye infections – trachoma of the eyes may damage eyesight – common in developing and underdeveloped countries with poor water and sanitation facilities. If a pregnant mother has German measles during pregnancy the baby may be born with visual impairment or blindness.

-       Amblyopia – is impaired vision in one eye due to lack of usage in early childhood. ‘Lazy eye’ or squint in the eye can cause weakness in the eyes leading to amblyopia in that eye.

-       Cataract - is the clouding of part of or the entire lens of the eye. This condition usually affects the elderly and its symptoms include blurred vision, double vision, etc.

       Diabetic retinopathy – Diabetes affects the blood vessels in the retina which leads to visual impairment.

          Glaucoma – increased pressure in the eyes impairs vision by damaging the optic nerve. One could be born with this condition or may develop it at an older age.

-      Age relate macular degeneration (AMD) – progressive loss of the visual acuity due to damage to the macula (the more sensitive part of the retina). Risk of AMD rises in those exposed to excess sunlight and those who smoke excessively.

-     AIDS related visual impairment – caused by viral infections of the eyes (Cytomegalovirus or CMV retinitis)  

    

      Cancer of the eyes – Retinoblastoma is the most common eye cancer in children. Annually there are 300 to 400 new cases diagnosed.

TREATMENT AND MANAGEMENT OF VISUAL IMPAIRMENT

Firstly, certain conditions should be looked into for treatment and management

• The degree of impairment, disability, or handicap
• Cause of visual impairment and possible outcome
• Age of the patient and level of development
• General health of the patient
• Patient’s other impairment and adjustment to the vision loss and patient’s expectations from therapy

IF THESE CONDITIONS ARE MET THEN:

-          Control of diabetes – Prevents progression of diabetic retinopathy and slows visual impairment to some extent.

-          Cataract surgery – an artificial lens can be placed within the eye as replacement for the damaged / clouded lens through a cataract operation and vision can be restored.

-          Magnification systems – using an appropriate lens vision can be improved.

-          Glaucoma medication – eye drops / eye injections can be used to control glaucoma. In some cases, laser corrections or open microscopic surgery may help improve vision.

-          AMD – of the dry variety has no cure yet, however the wet variety can use therapies that help stop progression of blindness. Photodynamic therapy can also be used. 

There is a need to encourage more Braille Schools as well as libraries. Technology can make this easy and accessible to all through various apps. Audiobooks are also an advantage and allow for more opportunities. 

Donating your eyes to enable the blind to see is a humane gift you can make once you leave this world.

It 

It is important to be sensitive and deal with people with any form of disability in an inclusive manner.

INEQUALITY DUE TO DISABILITY

In broad terms, ‘disability’ is any continuing condition that restricts everyday activity. It is the lack of adequate power, strength, physical or mental ability or incapacity that prevents a person from living a full, normal life.

Some common disabilities are:

-          Visual impairment

-          Hearing impairment

-          Mental health conditions

-          Intellectual disability

-          Acquired brain injury

-          Autism spectrum disorder

-          Physical disability

-          Etc. 

     It is on account of disability that there is need to provide special benefits for persons with disabilities in order enable them to assimilate into the general masses. It is important to be sensitive and inclusive while provided special benefits. 

COGNITIVE THEORY

The Cognitive Theory was developed by psychologist Albert Bandura. Cognitive Theory attempts to understand / explain human behavior by understanding thought processes. This theory views people as active agents who both influence and are influenced by their environment. 

Children observed people around them behaving in a particular way and imitate the same behavior.

The assumption of Cognitive Theory is that thoughts are the primary determinants of emotions and behaviors. 

A major component of the theory is observational learning - the process of learning desirable and undesirable behaviors by observing others, then reproducing learned behaviors in order to maximize rewards.

Observational learning occurs through four processes:

1. Attentional Processes: Information that is selected for observation in the environment. People may select to imitate real life people or things they observe via media.

2. Retention Processes: Keeping in mind or memorizing the observed information so that it can be recalled and reconstructed later.

3. Production Processes:  What was observed and learnt can now be applied in appropriate situations. The observer may not replicate the exact observation but may modify their behavior as necessary.

4. Motivational Processes: Determines whether the observed behavior results in desired or averse outcomes. If the observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be motivated to reproduce it later. However if the observed behavior was punished, the observer will be less motivated to reproduce the behavior again. 

Self- Efficacy - When people see others around them succeed, it motivates them to achieve success too. Thus the theory becomes a source of motivation and inspiration.

Social programs that were produced for developing communities on issues such as literacy, family planning, and the status of women have been successful in bringing about positive social change, while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive theory to media.

For example, a television show in India was produced to raise women’s status and promote smaller families by embedding these ideas in the show. The show championed gender equality by including characters that positively modeled women’s equality. The show was popular and viewers understood the messages it modeled. These viewers learned that women should have equal rights, should have the freedom to choose how they live their lives, and be able to limit the size of their families. Thus, the cognitive theory has been utilized to make a positive impact through fictional media models.

PROPAGANDA MODEL

Propaganda is a mode of communication used to manipulate or influence the opinion of groups to support a cause or belief.

Propaganda is convert persuasion.

Mass media serve as a system of communicating messages to the public. Its function is to amuse, entertain and inform as well as inculcate values, beliefs and codes of behavior.

The Propaganda Model focuses on the inequality of wealth and power and its multilevel effects on mass media interests and choices. It studies how money and power are able to filter out the news - fit to print, marginalize dissent and allow the government and dominant private interests to get their messages across to the public.

Today Propaganda campaigns are used for promotion of war against drugs, the fight against cancer and educating young girls against sexual assault. Posters / websites / posts advertising the effectis of drug abuse, etc. are examples of modern propaganda. Propaganda is also used by political parties especially pre-elections. 

MARSHALL MCLUHAN - MEDIUM IS THE MASSAGE

Marshall McLuhan is known for coining the expressions the 'Medium is the Massage' and 'Global Village'. He is the author of the book 'Medium is the Massage'.

According to Marshall McLuhan, technologies - from clothes to the wheel and beyond - are the messages themselves, not the content of the medium.

According to Marshall McLuhan, modern audiences have formed current media to be soothing, enjoyable and relaxing. However, the pleasure we find in new media is deceiving, as the changes between society and technology are incongruent and perpetuate an 'age of anxiety'.

According to him, modern media are extensions of human senses. They expand our ability to perceive the world to an extent that would be impossible without media. These extensions of perception contribute to McLuhan's theory of Global Village which would bring humanity full circle. 

Additional Information

Herbert Marshall Mc Luhan was born on 21st July 1911 in Canada. He majored in English Literature. He got a teaching job at the University of Toronto where he came in contact with communication studies expert Harold Innis.

He wrote many books, which generated much debate. Literary critics were dissatisfied with him for associating himself with media studies and did not agree with his ideas and demanded their scientific verification. 

His first major publication, The Mechanical Bride was published in 1951 in which he explored the effects of advertising on society and culture. 

Mc Luhan gave us the concept of world as a global village. he believed that with the ever-evolving communication technology man would be able to overcome the barriers of time and distance and mankind would become one family. The internet has confirmed this belief. His critics said that his idea of global village was a proof of his being a romanticist who believed that the global village was a utopia where everything was hunky dory.

Marshall Mc Luhan coined three theories in relation to the effects of advertisement on society. They are: 

1. Objects of desire - Where women are portrayed as desirable objects to men, in order to sell products back to the same women.

2. Technological Extensions of the human body - where in technology is now being substituted for the human body for any type of work or action.

3. Dangers of technological extensions - This relates to how technology is dangerous and we know it. But because of its luxurious advantages, we choose to ignore it.

ADVERTISING IN MAGAZINES

a)       Reach High Value customers – Magazine readers are better educated and have a higher purchasing power. Thus, it is considered an influential medium to reach opinion leaders.

b)      Active medium and Communicates better – The active process of reading ensures focus on and understanding of the brand message. Thus, reader involvement in magazine advertising is more increasing awareness of the brand.

c)       Bonus impressions – On an average a magazine is viewed 1.7 times providing more impressions per ad than newspapers or TV.

d)      Pass along readers – Magazines are read not only by subscribers but by many others.

e)      Entire Brand Story – Magazines allow detailed communication of the entire brand story.

f)        Most informative medium – Magazines influence purchase behavior early in the decision-making process giving readers an idea of what to buy.

g)       Selective targeting – Magazines target areas of interest. There are magazines for everyone and thus it is recommended to use magazine advertising to reach your specific target audience.

h)      Brand Relevant Imagery – Magazine editorial enhances ads with brand relevant imagery, associations and a frame of reference that delivers greater reader receptivity to brand ads.

i)        Build Relationships – Magazines are the most personal of media, creating a private connection with individual readers.

j)        Lasting Message – Consumers clip and save magazine ads for future reference.

k)       Credible Message – Magazine ads are perceived to be highly credible, believable and trustworthy sources of information.

l)        Flexibility – Provide opportunity for inserts, supplements, advertorials and a variety of size and positioning options to meet advertisers’ creative needs.

m)    Media Multiplier Effect – While using other media to advertise – magazines help create a multiplier effect thus reinforcing the brand in the mind of the reader.

n)      Magazines Generate Response – After reading/seeing the ad, consumers are motivated to shop for and purchase products, call a number or get in touch with the retailer/ clip a coupon and exchange it for a discount, etc. This generates response.

o)      Increase your Sales – magazines create appeal which makes the consumer want to go out there and purchase the product.

GLOBAL INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE

Global Information Infrastructure involves developing communication framework intended to eventually connect all telecommunication and computer networks worldwide.

Global Information Infrastructure intends to make all electronically stored or transmitted information accessible from anywhere on the planet.

However, for GII to evolve as envisioned, the internet or its successor must deal with challenging issues:

-          Security

-          Privacy

-          Translation

-          Hardware and software compatibility

-          Right to Information

-          Identity management

-          Competition

-          Digital rights management (DRM)

-          Governance

Global Information Infrastructure can be defined as a seamless web of interactive communications being deployed at worldwide level to provide the infrastructure for new services and activities based on the strategic use of all types of information.

The world community will need to adapt accordingly in all political, economic, social and cultural dimensions, thus establishing the basis of the new Global Information Society (GIS).

The development of GII – GIS depends on international collaboration. The principles first emerged at the G7 Ministerial Conference on GIS in Brussels in 1995. The conclusions drawn were:

-          Promoting dynamic competition

-          Encouraging private investment

-          Defining an adaptable regulatory framework

-          Providing open access to networks

While

-          Ensuring universal provision of and access to services

-          Promoting equality of opportunity to citizens

-          Promoting diversity of content, including cultural and linguistic diversity

-          Recognizing the necessity of worldwide cooperation with particular attention to less developed countries.

Governments will play a catalytic role in research, education, training and procurement. They should promote strategic Research and Development programs, launch user-oriented pilot projects and promotional activities, provide test-beds for experimentation, promote international cooperation.

GII Issues

1.       Market and Product Competition – Open international competition among countries and among providers of information, products and services. Thus the government has to eliminate restrictions on cross-sector services, modify existing policies, maintain transparency in regulations.

2.       Electronic Commerce and Digital Payments – This will lead to new types of markets and electronic commerce practices. Security required for electronic payments must not be misused to serve other ends that would threaten domestic and international security. This should not prevent legitimate control of financial flows by government.

3.       Interconnection, Open Access, Interoperability and Standards – Set standards that foster interconnection and interoperability. Open access should take place within a framework which guards against risks. Competition may be preceded by cooperation.

4.       Universal Service – Geographic access, affordable access, quality of services and tariffs for services. (e.g. Medical areas)