TURKEY UNDER MUSTAFA KEMAL PASHA

The First World War proved fatal for the Ottoman Empire. The war brought many changes to the Turkish society which was about to disintegrate. The government was incapable of governing. Inefficiency and corruption dominated every department. But the war generated many new positive forces. The rapid decaying conditions in Turkey gave liberals and democratics like Haliole Edib and nationalists like Kemal Pasha an opportunity of being heard. Their demand for self-government received increasing popular support.

Kemal was born in 1881 in Salonika. His training was military, but he showed nationalistic, democratic, and revolutionary tendencies. He formed the Peoples Party but rechristened it as Republican People Party. For three decades, the party played a leading role in the movement for creation of a new Turkey. He had a distinguished military career as he had participated in the Turko Italian War, Balkan War and World War I on behalf of Turkey.

Peace conference and the Ottoman Empire: According to the Treaty of Serves, Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia and Egypt were separated from the Ottoman Empire. But the Treaty of Serves was not accepted by the Turks. The Treaty angered Kemal who launched a vehement protest. He convened an assembly of like minded people and formed the Turkish National Party. The programs of the party were totally against the provisions of the Treaty of Serves. As the Treaty was not accepted, a revised Treaty in terms of the Treaty of Lausanne had to be enforced. In April 1920, the Turkish National Assembly met at Ankara and elected Kemal Pasha as its president. Soon after ratifying the Treaty of Lausanne in November 1923, the National Assembly declared Turkey a Republic, which was recognized by all powers. Kemal Pasha was its first president.

Having accomplished the task of creating a Republic, Kemal introduced a number of reforms which made Turkey a modern state.

Reforms of Kemal Pasha:

Kemalism: All the ideas and ideals of Kemal were crystallized in the third Congress of Ankara, where he expressed the fundamental political philosophy of the New Republic. They were known as six principles which were incorporated in the Constitution. These six principles were also referred to as Kemalism. They are as follows:

Republicanism (Political) – Turkey should get rid of monarchy, a symbol of decadence and corruption. All the people should enjoy the political benefits of the Republic.

Nationalism (Turkification) – Since Turkey was an Islamic Empire with multiple ethnic and religious groups, it was a task for him to instill the sense of national consciousness among the Turks. It was based on common citizenship and devotion to the national ideal.

Populism (legal) – It was to achieve equality before law and abolish privileges enjoyed by a section of people. It gave equal opportunities for the people to hold any office in the state and discharge their duties and responsibilities.

Etatism (mixed economy) – It applies welfare of the people in as much as the state could interfere in the economical activities of the nation, according to the necessities of time.

Secularism – It was to separate religion from politics. The citizen was given liberty with regard to his faith or conscience.

Revolution – It meant to depart radically from tradition and precedent, if they did not serve national interest. It was a commitment to rapid change.

 

Having discussed the basic philosophy of Kemalism, some of the important reforms in the various fields are given below:

Political reforms (Republicanism) – The National Assembly adopted a constitution which followed the European pattern. It was declared that the Executive powers were vested the President, advised by a Council of Ministers, who were made accountable to the legislature. Kemal combined in himself the offices of President of the state as well as of the party. The Council of ministers were answerable to the assembly. The assembly was the final law-making authority. Tribunals were appointed which were independent of executive control in administering justice.

Religious Reforms (Secularism) – In order to convert the state into a secular state, religion was separated from the state. The assembly abolished the Caliphate and the authority of the Sharia courts in civil matters and along with them went the Ministry of Pious Foundation and priest’s school. The Republicans substituted the European Calendar for an Islamic one and abandoned the practice of beginning the new day with sunset. Religious symbolism of fez cap and veil were also abolished. Western mode of dress was officially recognized. Wearing religious attire in the public was prohibited. Friday was replaced by Sunday as holiday.

Legal Reforms (Populism) – The Ottoman Empire followed the Sharia law which was based on the Holy Koran. Kemal’s government discarded the old Ottoman laws. It adopted the Swiss Civil Code, the Italian Penal Code and the German Commercial Code as the laws of the land. The principle of equality before law was established. The Constitution became the authority instead of Holy Koran. Muslim jurisprudence was abolished, and Rule of Law was established. The Constitution gave ‘General Rights of Turkish Citizens’ to the people. Among the rights guaranteed included the right to work, the right to property and association. It gave the citizens freedom from arbitrary arrest. It abolished forced labor and torture. The citizen was to enjoy freedom of conscience of thought and expression.

Educational Reforms – Public education was separated from the Muslim priests the constitution provided for free and compulsory education at the primary level. It resulted in the establishment of thousands of primary schools. It was followed by growth of secondary schools and institutes of higher learning. Trade, agriculture, forestry and commerce schools were opened. The government secured the services of foreign experts in order to assure high standards. A medical school was established at Constantinople. Kemal removed the old Arabic script and replaced it with Latin script. The Islamic calendar was abolished, and the Gregorian calendar was accepted. The old numerical system was replaced by metric system. Hence Keselowski writes, ‘The secret of Kemal Pasha’s success may largely be attributed to the strict enforcement of educational reforms’.

Position of women – Islam, as then practiced, did not give rights to women at all. Kemal abolished polygamy. The government took away marriage and divorce from the clutches of the clergy and brought them under the civil code. Voting right was given to women and they were allowed to contest in the municipal and national assembly elections. Due to compulsory education and various opportunities, the women became pioneers in shouldering the responsibilities of national reconstruction along with men. Women were given equal rights in marriage and divorce by law.

Minorities (Nationalism) – Since the Ottoman Empire consisted of multi-religious and multi-ethnic people, Turkey had to solve ethnic problems. Kemal wanted to respect non-Muslims and the people belonging to other countries. Kemal followed the policy of tolerance and equality. Thus, the minorities enjoyed all rights. It was obligatory on Turkey to extend civil rights to the foreigners in order to remove the capitulation. Kemal granted constitutional guarantees to the minorities who were considered as citizens of Turkey.

Economic reforms (Etatism) – To save Turkey from economic disaster, Mustafa Kemal Pasha introduced Etatism. The policy of Etatism required temporary sacrifices by the people, but in the long run economic independence was assured. The unfavorable foreign exchange had to be checked. The atrocities of the unscrupulous traders must be stopped. The public debts and war damages had to be cleared. Kemal Pasha and his advisers, therefore, decided to control the state resources.

Kemal allowed private entrepreneurs to associate in the task of reconstruction. Turkey sought the help of foreign experts. Soviet Russians, Germans, Swiss, British, and French experts were employed in the development of various economic enterprises.

Bank – An important step in the economic development of Turkey was the government control over banks. The Central Bank issued currency notes and supervised all financial policies. the Sumer Bank looked after the state-owned industries. The Eti Bank was to promote mining. The Agricultural Banks assisted the farmers. Railways were given priority under the State control. Similarly, constructing of roads, canals and improvements of other public works were pursued vigorously.

Some of the mineral products of Turkey exploited during Kemal’s reign are chromium in Anatolia, copper, coal, mercury, manganese, silver, lead and oil.

There were two major banks: Bank Ottomane (1863) and Banque Agricoll (1890). Later on, two more banks were set up in 1925-26. The Bank of National Econcomic Reconstruction was set up as the Imperial Bank of the Imperial Bank of the Ottoman Empire.

Agriculture – Russia, USA, UK, and Italy were granted permission to start small industries such as textiles, sugar, refining, and lumbering. In the agricultural sector, new scientific methods were developed. Farmers were given special training in agriculture and animal husbandry. Cooperative societies were set up to look into all issues of farming.

The ministry of agriculture began providing loans as well as advance on new methods and machines to both small and big farmers. Agricultural taxes were reduced, seeds were supplied by state organizations to start new crops like tea, potatoes, lemons and hazelnuts.

The government also paid attention to stock breeding and dairy. Agricultural products like olives, olive oil were exported.

Industry – Turkey set up industries to substitute previously imported articles such as textiles, glass, paper, cement, Sulphur, iron, steel, synthetic and phosphates. State cooperations regulated monopolies and state banks managed these industries.

Kemal had tried to create a middle path, avoiding Western models of capitalism and the excesses of the Soviet and Nazi regime. It was only when the industries started showing profits that they were taxed.

Transport and communication – Kemal displayed a lot of enthusiasm in the construction of Railways. The new republic set up the Taurus Express, the Angora line extension and a branch line to the Black Sea.

Roads and bridges were given as much importance as railways and a plan of 5000 kms of roadways was outlined. The government also improved and constructed a number of harbors.

The capital city of Ankara was simplified and made a modern city. Electricity and toxic light was provided to various towns and villages.

Five Year Plans – In order to secure the upward swing, a Five Year Plan was introduced. According to the plan industries were largely run by the state. Private enterprise were allowed to operate under the supervision of the government. Thus, with all its limitations and short comings, the economy was reconstructed.

Foreign policy – While Mustafa Kemal Ataturk had to face innumerable problems internally, there were external problems which needed his immediate attention. Formulation of foreign policy for the state of Turkey required tact and imagination. Fully aware of the implications of the international relations, he followed a quite policy which would benefit Turkey.

A Treaty of Neutrality was signed between Lenin and Kemal. Soviet Russia remained friendly to Turkey. The first attempt to have a friendly nation to which the Turkish ambassador could be sent was Soviet Russia. Both Lenin and Kemal approved of the exchange of diplomats.

The Treaty of Lausanne had not settled the question of Mosul. Britain wanted to keep it for herself to which Turkey did not agree. The League of Nations considered the issue and decided that the area of Mosul was to be given to Iraq and Britain was to be given the area as mandate for 25 years. Turkey did not approve of it. After two years, Kemal issued a master stroke of diplomacy by accepting a royalty of 50,000 pounds in exchange of the rights over Mosul. Britain was so pleased that she extended her friendship.

A Treaty of friendship was signed with Italy in 1928. It helped promote commercial transactions. Kemal was interested in collective security and cooperation of all the Balkan states. They agreed to his proposals of mutual help. A joint medical union, Chamber of Commerce, Agricultural and Industrial unions were established. The Balkan Postal Union was inaugurated. The Unions prospered well. The establishment of the unions brought Kemal Pasha laurels and the neighbors looked upon him as their chief advisor.

Assessment – Kemal to his credit has the distinction to convert an old religious kingdom into a vibrant Republic. He transformed Turkey into a modern nation.

Kemal when establishing the Republic was fully aware of the weakness of his country, its economic background, and the difficulty in unification. He also knew the reason for the situation and hence adopted a correct policy through his Kemalism. Although he ruled like a dictator, he was not a curse dictator. He worked for the progress and modernization of the country and took harsh decisions only when required. He worked for the progress and modernization of the country and took harsh decisions only when required. He was liberal, sincere and unselfish. He was willing to share power with party men. He was a true soldier and a great administration, statesman, and economist. No wonder people called him ‘Ataturk’ – Father of the Nation. He died in 1938 and was succeeded by Ismet Inoneri.