TURKEY UNDER MUSTAFA KEMAL PASHA

The First World War proved fatal for the Ottoman Empire. The war brought many changes to the Turkish society which was about to disintegrate. The government was incapable of governing. Inefficiency and corruption dominated every department. But the war generated many new positive forces. The rapid decaying conditions in Turkey gave liberals and democratics like Haliole Edib and nationalists like Kemal Pasha an opportunity of being heard. Their demand for self-government received increasing popular support.

Kemal was born in 1881 in Salonika. His training was military, but he showed nationalistic, democratic, and revolutionary tendencies. He formed the Peoples Party but rechristened it as Republican People Party. For three decades, the party played a leading role in the movement for creation of a new Turkey. He had a distinguished military career as he had participated in the Turko Italian War, Balkan War and World War I on behalf of Turkey.

Peace conference and the Ottoman Empire: According to the Treaty of Serves, Mesopotamia, Syria, Arabia and Egypt were separated from the Ottoman Empire. But the Treaty of Serves was not accepted by the Turks. The Treaty angered Kemal who launched a vehement protest. He convened an assembly of like minded people and formed the Turkish National Party. The programs of the party were totally against the provisions of the Treaty of Serves. As the Treaty was not accepted, a revised Treaty in terms of the Treaty of Lausanne had to be enforced. In April 1920, the Turkish National Assembly met at Ankara and elected Kemal Pasha as its president. Soon after ratifying the Treaty of Lausanne in November 1923, the National Assembly declared Turkey a Republic, which was recognized by all powers. Kemal Pasha was its first president.

Having accomplished the task of creating a Republic, Kemal introduced a number of reforms which made Turkey a modern state.

Reforms of Kemal Pasha:

Kemalism: All the ideas and ideals of Kemal were crystallized in the third Congress of Ankara, where he expressed the fundamental political philosophy of the New Republic. They were known as six principles which were incorporated in the Constitution. These six principles were also referred to as Kemalism. They are as follows:

Republicanism (Political) – Turkey should get rid of monarchy, a symbol of decadence and corruption. All the people should enjoy the political benefits of the Republic.

Nationalism (Turkification) – Since Turkey was an Islamic Empire with multiple ethnic and religious groups, it was a task for him to instill the sense of national consciousness among the Turks. It was based on common citizenship and devotion to the national ideal.

Populism (legal) – It was to achieve equality before law and abolish privileges enjoyed by a section of people. It gave equal opportunities for the people to hold any office in the state and discharge their duties and responsibilities.

Etatism (mixed economy) – It applies welfare of the people in as much as the state could interfere in the economical activities of the nation, according to the necessities of time.

Secularism – It was to separate religion from politics. The citizen was given liberty with regard to his faith or conscience.

Revolution – It meant to depart radically from tradition and precedent, if they did not serve national interest. It was a commitment to rapid change.

 

Having discussed the basic philosophy of Kemalism, some of the important reforms in the various fields are given below:

Political reforms (Republicanism) – The National Assembly adopted a constitution which followed the European pattern. It was declared that the Executive powers were vested the President, advised by a Council of Ministers, who were made accountable to the legislature. Kemal combined in himself the offices of President of the state as well as of the party. The Council of ministers were answerable to the assembly. The assembly was the final law-making authority. Tribunals were appointed which were independent of executive control in administering justice.

Religious Reforms (Secularism) – In order to convert the state into a secular state, religion was separated from the state. The assembly abolished the Caliphate and the authority of the Sharia courts in civil matters and along with them went the Ministry of Pious Foundation and priest’s school. The Republicans substituted the European Calendar for an Islamic one and abandoned the practice of beginning the new day with sunset. Religious symbolism of fez cap and veil were also abolished. Western mode of dress was officially recognized. Wearing religious attire in the public was prohibited. Friday was replaced by Sunday as holiday.

Legal Reforms (Populism) – The Ottoman Empire followed the Sharia law which was based on the Holy Koran. Kemal’s government discarded the old Ottoman laws. It adopted the Swiss Civil Code, the Italian Penal Code and the German Commercial Code as the laws of the land. The principle of equality before law was established. The Constitution became the authority instead of Holy Koran. Muslim jurisprudence was abolished, and Rule of Law was established. The Constitution gave ‘General Rights of Turkish Citizens’ to the people. Among the rights guaranteed included the right to work, the right to property and association. It gave the citizens freedom from arbitrary arrest. It abolished forced labor and torture. The citizen was to enjoy freedom of conscience of thought and expression.

Educational Reforms – Public education was separated from the Muslim priests the constitution provided for free and compulsory education at the primary level. It resulted in the establishment of thousands of primary schools. It was followed by growth of secondary schools and institutes of higher learning. Trade, agriculture, forestry and commerce schools were opened. The government secured the services of foreign experts in order to assure high standards. A medical school was established at Constantinople. Kemal removed the old Arabic script and replaced it with Latin script. The Islamic calendar was abolished, and the Gregorian calendar was accepted. The old numerical system was replaced by metric system. Hence Keselowski writes, ‘The secret of Kemal Pasha’s success may largely be attributed to the strict enforcement of educational reforms’.

Position of women – Islam, as then practiced, did not give rights to women at all. Kemal abolished polygamy. The government took away marriage and divorce from the clutches of the clergy and brought them under the civil code. Voting right was given to women and they were allowed to contest in the municipal and national assembly elections. Due to compulsory education and various opportunities, the women became pioneers in shouldering the responsibilities of national reconstruction along with men. Women were given equal rights in marriage and divorce by law.

Minorities (Nationalism) – Since the Ottoman Empire consisted of multi-religious and multi-ethnic people, Turkey had to solve ethnic problems. Kemal wanted to respect non-Muslims and the people belonging to other countries. Kemal followed the policy of tolerance and equality. Thus, the minorities enjoyed all rights. It was obligatory on Turkey to extend civil rights to the foreigners in order to remove the capitulation. Kemal granted constitutional guarantees to the minorities who were considered as citizens of Turkey.

Economic reforms (Etatism) – To save Turkey from economic disaster, Mustafa Kemal Pasha introduced Etatism. The policy of Etatism required temporary sacrifices by the people, but in the long run economic independence was assured. The unfavorable foreign exchange had to be checked. The atrocities of the unscrupulous traders must be stopped. The public debts and war damages had to be cleared. Kemal Pasha and his advisers, therefore, decided to control the state resources.

Kemal allowed private entrepreneurs to associate in the task of reconstruction. Turkey sought the help of foreign experts. Soviet Russians, Germans, Swiss, British, and French experts were employed in the development of various economic enterprises.

Bank – An important step in the economic development of Turkey was the government control over banks. The Central Bank issued currency notes and supervised all financial policies. the Sumer Bank looked after the state-owned industries. The Eti Bank was to promote mining. The Agricultural Banks assisted the farmers. Railways were given priority under the State control. Similarly, constructing of roads, canals and improvements of other public works were pursued vigorously.

Some of the mineral products of Turkey exploited during Kemal’s reign are chromium in Anatolia, copper, coal, mercury, manganese, silver, lead and oil.

There were two major banks: Bank Ottomane (1863) and Banque Agricoll (1890). Later on, two more banks were set up in 1925-26. The Bank of National Econcomic Reconstruction was set up as the Imperial Bank of the Imperial Bank of the Ottoman Empire.

Agriculture – Russia, USA, UK, and Italy were granted permission to start small industries such as textiles, sugar, refining, and lumbering. In the agricultural sector, new scientific methods were developed. Farmers were given special training in agriculture and animal husbandry. Cooperative societies were set up to look into all issues of farming.

The ministry of agriculture began providing loans as well as advance on new methods and machines to both small and big farmers. Agricultural taxes were reduced, seeds were supplied by state organizations to start new crops like tea, potatoes, lemons and hazelnuts.

The government also paid attention to stock breeding and dairy. Agricultural products like olives, olive oil were exported.

Industry – Turkey set up industries to substitute previously imported articles such as textiles, glass, paper, cement, Sulphur, iron, steel, synthetic and phosphates. State cooperations regulated monopolies and state banks managed these industries.

Kemal had tried to create a middle path, avoiding Western models of capitalism and the excesses of the Soviet and Nazi regime. It was only when the industries started showing profits that they were taxed.

Transport and communication – Kemal displayed a lot of enthusiasm in the construction of Railways. The new republic set up the Taurus Express, the Angora line extension and a branch line to the Black Sea.

Roads and bridges were given as much importance as railways and a plan of 5000 kms of roadways was outlined. The government also improved and constructed a number of harbors.

The capital city of Ankara was simplified and made a modern city. Electricity and toxic light was provided to various towns and villages.

Five Year Plans – In order to secure the upward swing, a Five Year Plan was introduced. According to the plan industries were largely run by the state. Private enterprise were allowed to operate under the supervision of the government. Thus, with all its limitations and short comings, the economy was reconstructed.

Foreign policy – While Mustafa Kemal Ataturk had to face innumerable problems internally, there were external problems which needed his immediate attention. Formulation of foreign policy for the state of Turkey required tact and imagination. Fully aware of the implications of the international relations, he followed a quite policy which would benefit Turkey.

A Treaty of Neutrality was signed between Lenin and Kemal. Soviet Russia remained friendly to Turkey. The first attempt to have a friendly nation to which the Turkish ambassador could be sent was Soviet Russia. Both Lenin and Kemal approved of the exchange of diplomats.

The Treaty of Lausanne had not settled the question of Mosul. Britain wanted to keep it for herself to which Turkey did not agree. The League of Nations considered the issue and decided that the area of Mosul was to be given to Iraq and Britain was to be given the area as mandate for 25 years. Turkey did not approve of it. After two years, Kemal issued a master stroke of diplomacy by accepting a royalty of 50,000 pounds in exchange of the rights over Mosul. Britain was so pleased that she extended her friendship.

A Treaty of friendship was signed with Italy in 1928. It helped promote commercial transactions. Kemal was interested in collective security and cooperation of all the Balkan states. They agreed to his proposals of mutual help. A joint medical union, Chamber of Commerce, Agricultural and Industrial unions were established. The Balkan Postal Union was inaugurated. The Unions prospered well. The establishment of the unions brought Kemal Pasha laurels and the neighbors looked upon him as their chief advisor.

Assessment – Kemal to his credit has the distinction to convert an old religious kingdom into a vibrant Republic. He transformed Turkey into a modern nation.

Kemal when establishing the Republic was fully aware of the weakness of his country, its economic background, and the difficulty in unification. He also knew the reason for the situation and hence adopted a correct policy through his Kemalism. Although he ruled like a dictator, he was not a curse dictator. He worked for the progress and modernization of the country and took harsh decisions only when required. He worked for the progress and modernization of the country and took harsh decisions only when required. He was liberal, sincere and unselfish. He was willing to share power with party men. He was a true soldier and a great administration, statesman, and economist. No wonder people called him ‘Ataturk’ – Father of the Nation. He died in 1938 and was succeeded by Ismet Inoneri.

YOUNG TURK MOVEMENT

Introduction: Ottoman Empire had a heterogenous population of Turks, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Albanians, Macedonians, Croats, Bulgarians, Armenians, etc. The ruler was a Caliph who followed Islam and was the spiritual and temporal head of the Islamic world. One of the noteworthy achievements of the Ottoman Empire was the capture of Constantinople in 1453. By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Ottoman Empire had become weak and insignificant in European politics and came to be called as the Sick man of Europe. It continued to remain a medieval empire and backward when the rest of Europe had become progressive.

Turks: The Turks are descendants from tribes which swept out of Central Asia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. As the Turkish tribes moved westwards, they were converted to Islam. The majority of Turks today are Muslim by religion. The Turks are related to Mongoloid people and some origins in the Turkish language can be traced back to the Mongoloid influence. For a period of four hundred years, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Arabs in the East until the end of the First World War, when it was broken up into a number of separate Arab states and the present Turkish Republic. However, there are Turks in other areas bordering Turkey like Iran, and Afghanistan and in communist China and Korea.

Young Turk Movement began with the ideal of Ottomanism, but later on they narrowed down to pan-Turanism. This was what made the minorities insecure and brought about in them a desire for separation from the Ottoman Empire and for establishment of separate identities. The Young Turk Movement was therefore a religio-political movement from Macro level to Micro level. A new Turkey is one of the outstanding achievements of the Middle East.

The idea of a renovated and consolidate Ottoman Empire was not desired by any European power. Russia, Austria, France, and Britain wanted to retain tehri special rights and interests in the various areas in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, therefore, Britain and other European powers sympathized with the aspirations of the Greeks and the Serbs for national freedom. They also tried to encourage Armenian nationalism. Thus, there were set contradictions in the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. If the idea of a modern national state was to be accepted as the ideal, the various minorities in the kingdom were bound to pull in different directions causing tensions.

Britain had defeated and freed Egypt from the Ottoman control in 1882. Likewise, Salonika and Aegean were desired by Austria. The Greeks, Serbs, and Romanians had declared their independence from Ottoman rule and thus there were Christian minorities who reduced the power of the Sultan and his dominions. By the Sharia, the non-Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire were not treated on par with the Muslim ones.

Political background of the Ottoman Empire: In 1856, after the Crimean War, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire introduced some reforms in finance and judiciary. In 1861, the new Sultan, Abdul Aziz, came to rule. He carried forward the reforms ad made efforts to open Turkey to the west. He was succeeded in 1876 by Murad V and in the same year Abdul Hamid II deposed Murad and became the Sultan.

Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909): As soon as he ascended the throne, Sultan Abdul Hamid II promulgated a new constitution and promised to establish a liberal and fair government and provide equality to the people. However, in a short while he resorted to repression and highhandedness. This led to disillusionment among the intellectuals and the armed forces.

Young Turk Movement: The Constitution of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (drafted by Midhat Pasha) brought in Western ideas of government and progress. Some of the Turks were exposed to Western systems of education, administration, law, etc. there were also immigrants to various parts of Europe where they came under Western influence and brought back progressive ideas for their country.

Secret societies were being formed in many parts of the Turkish Empire. The members of these societies were young and western educated men and also influenced by the nationalist movement of the Italians and Germans. Many of those who held extreme views had to leave the Ottoman Empire and take refuge in France, Germany, etc.

One such secret society was the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) founded in 1889. The revolutionaries who founded this belonged to the Imperial Medical College of Constantinople.

Another secret society was called ‘Fatherland’. Mustafa Kemal Pasha who was a junior officer in the army was a member of ‘Fatherland’.

Many of the revolutionaries wrote in Turkish language and most of them were young which is why the movement came to be called as ‘The Young Turk Movement’, the term being used for the first time in 1867.

The printing press played an important role in the revolutionary movement. Several Young Turks published journals and magazines with explosive material.

By the beginning of the twentieth century Young Turk Movement gathered momentum with more army cadets and students joining it.

With the involvement of Mustafa Kemal, a secret revolutionary, military society was established in 1905, in Damascus and officers of the third army coups at Salonika were influenced by it. This was a turning point because now the officers of the army became leaders of the revolutionary movement.

The First Congress of 1902: Paris became the headquarters of the Revolutionary Movement because many revolutionaries who had made unsuccessful attempts at overthrowing the government had escaped from Turkey to Paris. Murad Dey, a leader of the CUP was persecuted by the sultan. On this background, the first congress of the CUP was held in Paris in 1902. Apart from revolutionaries, some relative of the Sultan joined the CUP. The Congress proclaimed Ottomanism as its goal and intended to create a republic of all the Turks, Jews, Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, etc.

The victory of Japan over Russia in 1904-05 was a source of inspiration to the Young Turks especially the military. A new wave of nationalism swept over the Ottoman Empire and the agitations of the Young Turks increased. This was all the more so because along with Britain, Russia was out to destroy the Empire and the economic conditions in the Empire were deteriorating rapidly.

Four leaders gained prominence int eh Young Turk Movement. They were Enver Bey, Talat Pasha, Djemal Pasha and Kemal Pasha. Apart from military men several intellectuals joined the Young Turk Movement. In 1907, a second congress of the CUP was held again at Paris which discussed the issue of staging a revolution to overthrow the Empire.

Objectives of the Young Turks:

Modernization

Nationalism

Liberal Democracy and a Parliamentary Government

Strong armed forces

Freedom and capitulation (economic concessions given to foreign powers)

Freedom of press and liberty of individuals.

 

The Young Turks initially were very popular among all nationalities within the Ottoman Empire. Gradually however, they wanted a national state but were reluctant to assert their claims for independence or participation in government. Thus, the Young Turks began to insist on Turkification and did not want to give the others equal opportunity so that the consolidation of the Turkish Empire would not be affected.

Economic background of the Young Turk Movement: Foreign powers had trade concessions in several parts of Ottoman Empire and monopoly in trading certain goods. The western powers were the main source of the Empires economic disaster. Sea routes were controlled by Britain. Banks, factories, shipping, roads, ports, were all controlled by the West and managed with loans from the Western powers. The exorbitant rates of interest on these loans could be paid back only by heavy taxation of the Turkish farmers and ordinary people. Thus, the Young Turks realized that a revolution was necessary to overthrow the Sultan’s regime so as to end the economic exploitation of Turkey at the hands of foreigners.

Young Turk Revolution of 1908: In 1906, the ‘Fatherland’ and ‘Freedom Society’ shifted from Damascus to Salonika. The committee of Union and Progress was able to influence Third Corps at Salonika. The Young Turks wanted to restore the constitution of 1876 and thus with the help of the army where the soldiers were ill paid and frustrated, they proclaimed the Constitution as revived and marched on to Constantinople. The leaders of the revolution were Aaver Pasha and Nilazi. The Sultan was shocked, and he immediately agreed to accept the demands of the revolutionaries and become a constitutional monarch.

The Sultan agreed to convene the Parliament and hold elections on universal male suffrage. Thus, the revolution of 1908 was peaceful and successful on the outside. However, the Sultan was planning a conspiracy.

The Young Turks under the leadership of Talat Pasha and Enver Bey formed the government. However, the new government was not truly functional in a democratic way because the new administrators were inexperienced in statecraft. Kemal Pasha tried to reason out with the other leaders and wanted to dissolve the CUP. But the others scrambled for power and disillusioned the common people. Kemal Pasha returned to his army post overcome with disappointment.

Counter Revolution: On 13^th April 1909, Sultan Abdul Hamid II along with his conservative supporters staged a coup and overthrew the Young Turk government. The Young Turks were caught unaware, but it was momentary because very soon the division commanded by Kemal Pasha fought against the Sultans forces and Constantinople was recaptured. The Sultan was asked to retire and in his place Muhammed V was placed on the throne. The new Sultan was a constitutional head in the Parliamentary Democracy.

Balkan Wars: The Greeks, Serbs, Montenegrins and Bulgars formed a Balkan League to drive out the Turks from their regions. O 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey followed by other members of the league. The Balkan League was successful and gained a number of territorial concessions. Albania was granted independence which further weakened the Ottoman Empire.

Austria and Russia both had a large Slav population. Austria wanted to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia wanted a port in these straits. Germany supported the Austrian annexation, whereas Britain and France remained neutral and did not venture to save the Ottoman Empire.

Italy annexed Libya in 1911, a part of the Ottoman Empire (Tripoli). The Ottoman Empire had become so weak that it could not win any of the wars till 1913.

In 1913, the first Pan-Arab Congress was held in Paris demanding political rights for Arabs and participation in the government in the Ottoman Empire.

In a warlike situation, Britain had pledged herself on the side of France and Russia. The Turks would align themselves with the Germans. This was so because Germany had forwarded loans ad assistance to train the Turkish army and also Berlin Baghdad Raily which had been refused by Britain and France.

Britain therefore decided to cultivate the other nationalities int eh Ottoman Empire and initiated talks with the Arab leaders. Even before the outbreak of the war the aims of the Entente were contained in the secret agreements regarding territorial gains. To counter the Turks, Britain was forced to reach an understanding with the Arabs and the Zionists and Greece through a network of agreements. Some of them contradictory, but all of them designed to dismember the Ottoman empire.

In turkey at this time a trio consisting of Anwar Pasha, Talat Pasha and Djemal Pasha became dictators of the state, and the new slogan was ‘Turkey for Turks’. Ottomanism changed into a narrow Turanism (Triumvirates).

Turkey and World War I: Turkey initially remained neutral because two of the Triumvirates did not want to join the war. The third member Anwar Pasha, however, involved Turkey in the war by signing a treaty with Germany. The Sultan was hopeful that the Muslim community would join him in ‘Jihad’ (holy war). Turkey’s alliance with Christian countries like Germany and Austria, did not evoke sympathy from the Muslims. Muslims in India, Egypt and Sudan were controlled by the British, in North Africa by the French and Central Asia by Russia.

The Turkish army fought bravely but lacked proper training and resources. After the defeat of Germany and Austria, the representatives of the Sultan signed an armistice of Woodrow and the war came to an end (1918). Even as the war was going on, the wester powers, expecting the collapse of the Ottoman Empire decided among themselves the territorial gain from the Empire through the Hussain Mac Mohan correspondence and the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

Treaty of Serves: At the Paris Peace Conference after the First World War, the Treaty of Serves was signed which dismembered the Ottoman Empire.

Territorial causes:

Arab lands – Turkey was deprived of all Arab portions of her Empire. Hejaz became an independent state. Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia were freed from Turkish control.

In Europe, Eastern Thrace was given to Greece and Greece received Western Thrace from the allies given to them by Bulgaria.

Aegean islands and Smyrna were placed under Greek administration for five years and the islands of Imbros and Tenedos were given to Greece.

Armenia was recognized as an independent state.

The Kurdish area was given up by Turkey and the frontier with Iran modified.

The Straits were under international control.

There Turkish army and navy were limited and subject to allied advice. An allied commission was to look after the finances of Turkey. Several humiliating capitulations were added and Turkey was forced to accept the rights of the minorities.

Egypt became a pre-dictorate of the British. A new state of Iraq was created. The Jews were given a homeland in Palestine according to the Balfour Declarations.

These arrangements humiliated Turkey and reduced her status to almost that of a protectorate. The areas given to Greece was in recognition of the services rendered by Greece to the allies and as an additional safeguard of the maritime routes of Great Britain. The Turks traditionally considered the Greeks as a subject race and could not accept this reversal of roles.

In this moment of crisis, Turkey found an exceptional leader in General Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He launched a campaign against both the allies and the Ottoman government and succeeded in stirring the nation. He had to face five enemies: The Armenians in the East, The French in Cilicia, The Italians in Adelia, The Greeks in Snyrama, and The British in Constantinople.

The French concluded an armistice with Kemal on 30^th May 1920 in Ankara.

The Armenians were simultaneously attacked by the Turks on the West and the Bolsheviks on the East. By the Treaty of Alexandropol, 3 December 1920, Armenia gave large portions of its western territory to Turkey.

In March 1921, Kemal concluded an agreement with Italy and Italians agreed to evacuate in exchange for economic concessions.

Kemal secured Soviet assistance and neutralized French and Italian hostility and concentrated on the Greek war. By mid-August 1922 the Turks drove back the Greeks to the Mediterranean Sea and took Snyrama.

According to the convention in October 1922 between Kemal and the allies, Kemal accepted international control of the straits and also Eastern Thrace and Adrianople were given back to Turkey.

The Treaty of Serves was revoked and on 24^th July 1921, a new treaty of Lausanne was signed which was a victory for Turkey. By signing this treaty, Kemal’s government buried forever the remnants of Ottoman tradition. A separate Greco tradition provided for compulsory exchange of the Greek minority in Turkey and Turkish minority in Greece.

CIRCUMSTANCES THAT LED TO THE YOUNG TURK MOVEMENT AND ITS EFFECTS

 The Ottoman Turks and their Empire had declined, and its reputation was lowered due to its unwieldly size and orthodoxy.

Islam, was the local religion and the Sultan, Caliph (head of the Muslim world) exercised dictational powers inspite of the presence of the Vizier.

Since the Sultan was an autocratic despot, great advantage was taken of Turkey by other European powers like England, France, Germany, and Austria. The Ottoman did not allow any reforms to enter Turkey. The imperialists make Turkey a victim of power politics. As a result, Turkey came to be called as the Sick Man of Europe in the nineteenth century.

The Young Turks were a group of western educated youth. They had military training. They were dissatisfied with the Sultan and had formed a committee of Union and Progress at Salonika. There were also some other such organizations. They had been influenced by the revolutions of America, France and other countries and believed the autocratic Turkish rulers could be ousted only by means of revolution.

Causes of the Revolution of 1908

Autocratic rule of Sultan Abul Hamid II – The Sultan was a dictatorial autocratic ruler. He did not allow infiltration of any reforms into Turkey. He exercised secular and religious powers arbitrarily. Anyone opposing him was ruthlessly crushed. As a result, every nationalist within his rule was suppressed.

Suspension of the Constitution of 1876 – In 1876, the democratic constitution had been suspended and a monarchy was established. Now people demanded a democratic parliamentary system. It resulted in the promulgation of a democratic constitution by Midhal Pasha. The people were convinced that the political situation would not improve unless the Sultan was deposed.

Economic conditions – The economy was in bad shape. Whenever the Sultan needed funds, he obtained it by way of loans from the European Imperialists. They advanced loans because they had their own political ends to achieve. In order to repay loans, people were heavily taxed increasing their suffering.

Foreign influence – The decline of the Ottoman powers and weakening of the Sultan gave opportunities to foreigners. They advanced loans and demanded privileges. The French were exempted from paying taxes when traveling in the Ottoman Empire. Islamic law was not applicable to them in the Turkish Empire. Although treaties signed were on a reciprocal basis, in reality foreign national benefited.

Ill treatment of non-muslims – On one hand superior treatment was given to foreigners. On the other hand, non-Muslims in the Empire were subjected to religious discrimination. The Sultan came down upon Christian subjects which invited the wrath of the Russian Tzar who rose to defend people of his own religion. This Russian intervention attracted the Anglo-French powers to intervene in the Crimean War.

Secret societies – The political conditions at the end of the nineteenth century led to the formation of secret societies. The most important and popular was the committee of Union and Progress at Salonika by liberal, military trained revolutionaries. Other groups were formed like Fatherland and Freedom Society by Mustafa Kemal Pasha. By 1907, these societies got merged with the committee of Union and Progress to carry out the programs of Young Turks.

Rise of Turkish Nationalism – Inspite of efforts of the Sultan to keep away revolutionary ideas, liberalism influenced the people. Young people came in contact with western ideologies and discussed ideals for a better Turkey. This ideology came to be known as ‘Ottomanism’. They knew that unless the old Sultans were removed, modernization would not take place.

The main aim of the Young Turks:

To restore old prestige of the Turkish empire.

To modernize the country without giving prominence to Western cultural values.

Not allow religious fanaticism to come in the way of modernization.

They wanted to create a Democratic political order with a strong military to guard the basic fundamental rights of citizens.

‘The Young Turks desired to end the Sultan’s despotism. They were effectively scattered ad suppressed in the first few years of his reign. But their ideals survived. They re-emerged towards the end of the century in a movement called the Young Turks’ – Peter Hansfield