YOUNG TURK MOVEMENT

Introduction: Ottoman Empire had a heterogenous population of Turks, Arabs, Jews, Greeks, Albanians, Macedonians, Croats, Bulgarians, Armenians, etc. The ruler was a Caliph who followed Islam and was the spiritual and temporal head of the Islamic world. One of the noteworthy achievements of the Ottoman Empire was the capture of Constantinople in 1453. By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Ottoman Empire had become weak and insignificant in European politics and came to be called as the Sick man of Europe. It continued to remain a medieval empire and backward when the rest of Europe had become progressive.

Turks: The Turks are descendants from tribes which swept out of Central Asia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. As the Turkish tribes moved westwards, they were converted to Islam. The majority of Turks today are Muslim by religion. The Turks are related to Mongoloid people and some origins in the Turkish language can be traced back to the Mongoloid influence. For a period of four hundred years, the Ottoman Empire dominated the Arabs in the East until the end of the First World War, when it was broken up into a number of separate Arab states and the present Turkish Republic. However, there are Turks in other areas bordering Turkey like Iran, and Afghanistan and in communist China and Korea.

Young Turk Movement began with the ideal of Ottomanism, but later on they narrowed down to pan-Turanism. This was what made the minorities insecure and brought about in them a desire for separation from the Ottoman Empire and for establishment of separate identities. The Young Turk Movement was therefore a religio-political movement from Macro level to Micro level. A new Turkey is one of the outstanding achievements of the Middle East.

The idea of a renovated and consolidate Ottoman Empire was not desired by any European power. Russia, Austria, France, and Britain wanted to retain tehri special rights and interests in the various areas in the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, therefore, Britain and other European powers sympathized with the aspirations of the Greeks and the Serbs for national freedom. They also tried to encourage Armenian nationalism. Thus, there were set contradictions in the modernization of the Ottoman Empire. If the idea of a modern national state was to be accepted as the ideal, the various minorities in the kingdom were bound to pull in different directions causing tensions.

Britain had defeated and freed Egypt from the Ottoman control in 1882. Likewise, Salonika and Aegean were desired by Austria. The Greeks, Serbs, and Romanians had declared their independence from Ottoman rule and thus there were Christian minorities who reduced the power of the Sultan and his dominions. By the Sharia, the non-Muslim citizens of the Ottoman Empire were not treated on par with the Muslim ones.

Political background of the Ottoman Empire: In 1856, after the Crimean War, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire introduced some reforms in finance and judiciary. In 1861, the new Sultan, Abdul Aziz, came to rule. He carried forward the reforms ad made efforts to open Turkey to the west. He was succeeded in 1876 by Murad V and in the same year Abdul Hamid II deposed Murad and became the Sultan.

Abdul Hamid II (1876-1909): As soon as he ascended the throne, Sultan Abdul Hamid II promulgated a new constitution and promised to establish a liberal and fair government and provide equality to the people. However, in a short while he resorted to repression and highhandedness. This led to disillusionment among the intellectuals and the armed forces.

Young Turk Movement: The Constitution of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (drafted by Midhat Pasha) brought in Western ideas of government and progress. Some of the Turks were exposed to Western systems of education, administration, law, etc. there were also immigrants to various parts of Europe where they came under Western influence and brought back progressive ideas for their country.

Secret societies were being formed in many parts of the Turkish Empire. The members of these societies were young and western educated men and also influenced by the nationalist movement of the Italians and Germans. Many of those who held extreme views had to leave the Ottoman Empire and take refuge in France, Germany, etc.

One such secret society was the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) founded in 1889. The revolutionaries who founded this belonged to the Imperial Medical College of Constantinople.

Another secret society was called ‘Fatherland’. Mustafa Kemal Pasha who was a junior officer in the army was a member of ‘Fatherland’.

Many of the revolutionaries wrote in Turkish language and most of them were young which is why the movement came to be called as ‘The Young Turk Movement’, the term being used for the first time in 1867.

The printing press played an important role in the revolutionary movement. Several Young Turks published journals and magazines with explosive material.

By the beginning of the twentieth century Young Turk Movement gathered momentum with more army cadets and students joining it.

With the involvement of Mustafa Kemal, a secret revolutionary, military society was established in 1905, in Damascus and officers of the third army coups at Salonika were influenced by it. This was a turning point because now the officers of the army became leaders of the revolutionary movement.

The First Congress of 1902: Paris became the headquarters of the Revolutionary Movement because many revolutionaries who had made unsuccessful attempts at overthrowing the government had escaped from Turkey to Paris. Murad Dey, a leader of the CUP was persecuted by the sultan. On this background, the first congress of the CUP was held in Paris in 1902. Apart from revolutionaries, some relative of the Sultan joined the CUP. The Congress proclaimed Ottomanism as its goal and intended to create a republic of all the Turks, Jews, Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, etc.

The victory of Japan over Russia in 1904-05 was a source of inspiration to the Young Turks especially the military. A new wave of nationalism swept over the Ottoman Empire and the agitations of the Young Turks increased. This was all the more so because along with Britain, Russia was out to destroy the Empire and the economic conditions in the Empire were deteriorating rapidly.

Four leaders gained prominence int eh Young Turk Movement. They were Enver Bey, Talat Pasha, Djemal Pasha and Kemal Pasha. Apart from military men several intellectuals joined the Young Turk Movement. In 1907, a second congress of the CUP was held again at Paris which discussed the issue of staging a revolution to overthrow the Empire.

Objectives of the Young Turks:

Modernization

Nationalism

Liberal Democracy and a Parliamentary Government

Strong armed forces

Freedom and capitulation (economic concessions given to foreign powers)

Freedom of press and liberty of individuals.

 

The Young Turks initially were very popular among all nationalities within the Ottoman Empire. Gradually however, they wanted a national state but were reluctant to assert their claims for independence or participation in government. Thus, the Young Turks began to insist on Turkification and did not want to give the others equal opportunity so that the consolidation of the Turkish Empire would not be affected.

Economic background of the Young Turk Movement: Foreign powers had trade concessions in several parts of Ottoman Empire and monopoly in trading certain goods. The western powers were the main source of the Empires economic disaster. Sea routes were controlled by Britain. Banks, factories, shipping, roads, ports, were all controlled by the West and managed with loans from the Western powers. The exorbitant rates of interest on these loans could be paid back only by heavy taxation of the Turkish farmers and ordinary people. Thus, the Young Turks realized that a revolution was necessary to overthrow the Sultan’s regime so as to end the economic exploitation of Turkey at the hands of foreigners.

Young Turk Revolution of 1908: In 1906, the ‘Fatherland’ and ‘Freedom Society’ shifted from Damascus to Salonika. The committee of Union and Progress was able to influence Third Corps at Salonika. The Young Turks wanted to restore the constitution of 1876 and thus with the help of the army where the soldiers were ill paid and frustrated, they proclaimed the Constitution as revived and marched on to Constantinople. The leaders of the revolution were Aaver Pasha and Nilazi. The Sultan was shocked, and he immediately agreed to accept the demands of the revolutionaries and become a constitutional monarch.

The Sultan agreed to convene the Parliament and hold elections on universal male suffrage. Thus, the revolution of 1908 was peaceful and successful on the outside. However, the Sultan was planning a conspiracy.

The Young Turks under the leadership of Talat Pasha and Enver Bey formed the government. However, the new government was not truly functional in a democratic way because the new administrators were inexperienced in statecraft. Kemal Pasha tried to reason out with the other leaders and wanted to dissolve the CUP. But the others scrambled for power and disillusioned the common people. Kemal Pasha returned to his army post overcome with disappointment.

Counter Revolution: On 13^th April 1909, Sultan Abdul Hamid II along with his conservative supporters staged a coup and overthrew the Young Turk government. The Young Turks were caught unaware, but it was momentary because very soon the division commanded by Kemal Pasha fought against the Sultans forces and Constantinople was recaptured. The Sultan was asked to retire and in his place Muhammed V was placed on the throne. The new Sultan was a constitutional head in the Parliamentary Democracy.

Balkan Wars: The Greeks, Serbs, Montenegrins and Bulgars formed a Balkan League to drive out the Turks from their regions. O 8 October 1912, Montenegro declared war on Turkey followed by other members of the league. The Balkan League was successful and gained a number of territorial concessions. Albania was granted independence which further weakened the Ottoman Empire.

Austria and Russia both had a large Slav population. Austria wanted to annex Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Russia wanted a port in these straits. Germany supported the Austrian annexation, whereas Britain and France remained neutral and did not venture to save the Ottoman Empire.

Italy annexed Libya in 1911, a part of the Ottoman Empire (Tripoli). The Ottoman Empire had become so weak that it could not win any of the wars till 1913.

In 1913, the first Pan-Arab Congress was held in Paris demanding political rights for Arabs and participation in the government in the Ottoman Empire.

In a warlike situation, Britain had pledged herself on the side of France and Russia. The Turks would align themselves with the Germans. This was so because Germany had forwarded loans ad assistance to train the Turkish army and also Berlin Baghdad Raily which had been refused by Britain and France.

Britain therefore decided to cultivate the other nationalities int eh Ottoman Empire and initiated talks with the Arab leaders. Even before the outbreak of the war the aims of the Entente were contained in the secret agreements regarding territorial gains. To counter the Turks, Britain was forced to reach an understanding with the Arabs and the Zionists and Greece through a network of agreements. Some of them contradictory, but all of them designed to dismember the Ottoman empire.

In turkey at this time a trio consisting of Anwar Pasha, Talat Pasha and Djemal Pasha became dictators of the state, and the new slogan was ‘Turkey for Turks’. Ottomanism changed into a narrow Turanism (Triumvirates).

Turkey and World War I: Turkey initially remained neutral because two of the Triumvirates did not want to join the war. The third member Anwar Pasha, however, involved Turkey in the war by signing a treaty with Germany. The Sultan was hopeful that the Muslim community would join him in ‘Jihad’ (holy war). Turkey’s alliance with Christian countries like Germany and Austria, did not evoke sympathy from the Muslims. Muslims in India, Egypt and Sudan were controlled by the British, in North Africa by the French and Central Asia by Russia.

The Turkish army fought bravely but lacked proper training and resources. After the defeat of Germany and Austria, the representatives of the Sultan signed an armistice of Woodrow and the war came to an end (1918). Even as the war was going on, the wester powers, expecting the collapse of the Ottoman Empire decided among themselves the territorial gain from the Empire through the Hussain Mac Mohan correspondence and the Sykes-Picot Agreement.

Treaty of Serves: At the Paris Peace Conference after the First World War, the Treaty of Serves was signed which dismembered the Ottoman Empire.

Territorial causes:

Arab lands – Turkey was deprived of all Arab portions of her Empire. Hejaz became an independent state. Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia were freed from Turkish control.

In Europe, Eastern Thrace was given to Greece and Greece received Western Thrace from the allies given to them by Bulgaria.

Aegean islands and Smyrna were placed under Greek administration for five years and the islands of Imbros and Tenedos were given to Greece.

Armenia was recognized as an independent state.

The Kurdish area was given up by Turkey and the frontier with Iran modified.

The Straits were under international control.

There Turkish army and navy were limited and subject to allied advice. An allied commission was to look after the finances of Turkey. Several humiliating capitulations were added and Turkey was forced to accept the rights of the minorities.

Egypt became a pre-dictorate of the British. A new state of Iraq was created. The Jews were given a homeland in Palestine according to the Balfour Declarations.

These arrangements humiliated Turkey and reduced her status to almost that of a protectorate. The areas given to Greece was in recognition of the services rendered by Greece to the allies and as an additional safeguard of the maritime routes of Great Britain. The Turks traditionally considered the Greeks as a subject race and could not accept this reversal of roles.

In this moment of crisis, Turkey found an exceptional leader in General Mustafa Kemal Pasha. He launched a campaign against both the allies and the Ottoman government and succeeded in stirring the nation. He had to face five enemies: The Armenians in the East, The French in Cilicia, The Italians in Adelia, The Greeks in Snyrama, and The British in Constantinople.

The French concluded an armistice with Kemal on 30^th May 1920 in Ankara.

The Armenians were simultaneously attacked by the Turks on the West and the Bolsheviks on the East. By the Treaty of Alexandropol, 3 December 1920, Armenia gave large portions of its western territory to Turkey.

In March 1921, Kemal concluded an agreement with Italy and Italians agreed to evacuate in exchange for economic concessions.

Kemal secured Soviet assistance and neutralized French and Italian hostility and concentrated on the Greek war. By mid-August 1922 the Turks drove back the Greeks to the Mediterranean Sea and took Snyrama.

According to the convention in October 1922 between Kemal and the allies, Kemal accepted international control of the straits and also Eastern Thrace and Adrianople were given back to Turkey.

The Treaty of Serves was revoked and on 24^th July 1921, a new treaty of Lausanne was signed which was a victory for Turkey. By signing this treaty, Kemal’s government buried forever the remnants of Ottoman tradition. A separate Greco tradition provided for compulsory exchange of the Greek minority in Turkey and Turkish minority in Greece.