ECOLOGY

The term ‘ecology’ is derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning ‘home’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘study’. Thus the term ecology means the study of ‘living systems at home’ / the study of all living systems in relation to their respective environment.

Ecology is a sub-discipline of biology (the study of life)

Definition – Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms.

THE ENVIRONMENT IS A FUNCTIONING LIVE SYSTEM

Environment is the sum of total conditions and surroundings of man in which he inhabits, interacts and influences and is influenced. It is a comprehensive term.

No organism can live in isolation. It depends on its natural environment.

The environment which comprises of a network of living and non living components, constantly interact and are in a state of balance. Any change in one of the components or processes triggers off a chain of reactions over a period of time and space.

e.g. Increase in the use of fossil fuels has led to high emission of Carbon Monoxide and Lead Oxide which leads to depletion of the ozone layer which controls UV radiation. This in turn causes skin cancer.

It is thus important to understand the need for natural systems and their inter dependence on each other. Only then will we be able to respect the environment which looks after all our needs.

Thus the environment is a functioning live system.

STRESS & STRESS MANAGEMENT

What is stress?

Stress is a body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response.

It affects an individual’s ability to cope with situations

There are three perspectives to stress – an event, a reaction and a transaction

When we associate stress with an event the event is called a stressor. E.g. divorce, illness

Stress can also be thought of as a reaction to an event. You may respond with ‘fight’ of ‘flight’.

It leads to increased heart rate, tension, high blood sugar, etc.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Relax – Use relaxation techniques like mediation, yoga and deep breathing to activate the body’s relaxation response. If practiced regularly, these activities lead to a reduction in your stress levels. They also boost serenity and joy and increasing one’s ability to stay calm and collected under pressure.

Adopting the right attitude can turn a negative stress into a positive one.

Exercise – Regular physical exertion – a thirty-minute walk, Pilates, free weight work out, swimming – helps build strength, resilience and energy.

Healthy Diet – Eating healthy foods and avoiding sugary and fattening treats helps keep your body in balance.

Socialization and supportive conversations – Sharing your feelings with a trusted friend, family member, mentor, psychotherapy and counseling, can help you feel better and deal with situations better.

Time management – sometimes stress is caused on account of poor management of time / poor organization. Learning how to manage appointments, to say ‘no’ to requests you cannot fulfill, organize records, setting alarms, etc., can help make a difference.

Invest in your emotional health – Most of us tend to ignore our emotional health unless there is a problem. People with good emotional health are able to bounce back from stress and adversity as they are focused and resilient.

Keep a positive attitude – Holding positive thoughts rather than negative thoughts go a long way in maintaining a positive attitude. Think positively about yourself. Surround yourself with positive and inspiring people.

Participate in activities you enjoy – Make time for hobbies and interests. Read a good book / volunteer your services / join a sports team / engage in gardening, etc.

Get enough sleep – Getting 7-8 hours of sleep will enable you to cope with stress and distress. If you are well-rested, you can deal with situations better.

Remember to laugh – Laughter is one of the best medicines. It releases chemicals into the brain that promote relaxation. People who find humor tend to be more productive, live longer and have less physical problems. A good laugh a day keeps stress away.

VARIABILITY IN STRESS / THREE WAYS TO COPE WITH STRESS

We see variability in stress among different people at different times. For e.g. slow moving traffic can cause stress if you are getting late for an exam / appointment. However on another day slow moving traffic will not make a difference to you.

The ‘three’ things that help people cope with stress are:

Challenge – see difficulties as an opportunity for change and growth

Control – believe that you can arrange situations to be the master of your life

Commitment – to be engaged with life and its circumstances and not just watch your life go by.

Although each source of stress will evoke specific reactions to it, a general reaction to all stress through the three way to cope with stress will help you in any situation.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

‘Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs’ – Brundtland 1987

NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

With industrialization and development, we end up exploiting our resources. Thus, there is a need for Sustainable Development.

Environmental issues – Human beings have understood the various processes and forces operating in the natural environment and use these resources to benefit and satisfy needs and wants. However, man needs to understand how this exploitation is affecting the environment.

Human capacity – to use environmental forces and natural resources depends on scientific and technological development. It is seen that the rate of exploitation of resources and the pollution created in the process is higher in industrial economies as compared to underdeveloped economies.

Cost of development – Although humankind enjoys the fruit of development, the environment is degraded and polluted on account of exploitation of resources. But development and human greed leads to an even more rapid rate of exploitation of resources.

Resource exploitation – The reckless exploitation of resources has led to wastage, over exploitation, depletion and degradation of resources. This in turn makes resource exploitation unsustainable.

Resource consumption – Many resources like fossil fuels and minerals are on or near the verge of exhaustion. Fossil fuels are responsible for air pollution.

Although resources like forests, water, air are known to have the capacity to regenerate, the rate at which they are exploited is tremendous and these resources are also being depleted, for e.g. deforestation.

Future development processes need to be more rational in their use of natural resources as well as adopting technologies that are environmentally friendly. It is important to realize that sustainable future lies in our hand and only if we alter our values, beliefs and behavior, can we ensure proper sustainable development.

GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The President’s Council for Sustainable Development (USA) have put forth goals for sustainable development. Some of the goals are as follows

Ensure every person the benefits of a healthy environment.

Sustain a healthy economy that affords the opportunity for a high quality of life

Ensure equity and opportunity for economic, social and environmental well-being.

Protect and restore natural resources for current and future generations

Encourage stewardship

Encourage people to work together to create healthy communities

Create full opportunity for citizens, business, and communities to participate in and influence the 

natural resources, environmental and economic decisions that affect them.

Move towards stabilization of the World Population.

Take lead in developing and carrying out sustainable development policies globally.

Ensure access to formal education and lifelong learning that will prepare citizens for meaningful work and a high quality of life and give them an understanding of concepts involved in sustainable development.

Sustainable Development is the need of the day.

SOCIALIZATION & AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is the process through which an individual inherits the norms, customs and ideologies of the social order in which they live.

Socialization is necessary in order to make an individual capable of interacting within a society. It is a lifelong process where one keeps learning and developing oneself as a human being.

An individual learns socialization through the agents of socialization. An individual responds differently to different agents of socialization.

The main agents of socialization are:

Family – is the most important agent of socialization. It helps mould an individual. Family values, beliefs, religious inclinations and political views shape an individual’s outlook towards society. Parents are the biggest influencers in the social development of children.

School – is the next important influencer after the family. Schools help impart knowledge, create awareness and inculcate the feeling of tolerance in individuals. Schools form the second step in socialization as a child now meets different children and learns to adapt as well as understand right and wrong, good and bad.

Community and culture – help an individual interact with other individuals with a similar mind set / ideology. This helps pass on religious views as well as cultural traditions.

Peers / friends – Meeting like minded people, making friends and hanging out are part of an individual’s way of making social contact. Peers / friends have an impact on the thoughts and ideas of individuals. Individuals also learn to behave in a manner that will be acceptable to their peers. This is an important aspect of socialization.

Mass media – Today people are strongly influenced by mass media. Political, religious and social views are enforced through repeated exposure and arguments put forth by agents of mass media.

The different positive attributes fed by agents of socialization create harmony in an individual and makes him feel confident. It also enables individuals understand and respect social etiquette.

Thus the agents of socialization play an important role in an individuals life.

INDIA - ECONOMIC REFORMS POST LPG

APPRAISAL OF LPG POLICIES (ECONOMIC REFORMS)

Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization created mixed reactions

Arguments in favor of Economic reforms

Increase in rate of economic growth – the growth of GDP increased during the reform period

Foreign exchange reserves increased along with inflow of foreign investments

Inflation was under control

The role of the private sector increased. The abolition of the licensing system and removal of restrictions on entry of the private sector earlier reserved for the public sector have enlarged the area of operation of the private sector.

CRITICISM OF ECONOMIC REFORMS

Neglect of agriculture – public investment in agricultural sector especially in infrastructure which includes irrigation, power, roads, market linkages and research were reduced in the reform period.

Removal of the fertilizer subsidy increased the cost of production which adversely affected the small and marginal farmers.

After the commencement of WTO a number of policy changes were made like reduction in import duties on agricultural products, removal of minimum support price and lifting of quantitative restriction on agricultural products.

Due to export oriented policy strategies in agriculture the production shifted from good grains to cash corps for the export market. It led to the rise in prices of food grains.

Growing unemployment – in the public sector, on the plea of overstaffing and redundancy and in the private sector on the plea of modernization and technical upgradation, workers were gradually being retrenched or forced to accept voluntary retirement.

Low level of industrial growth

Cheaper imported goods replaced the demand for domestic goods and domestic manufacturers started facing competition from imports.

Lack of infrastructure facilities including power supply due to lack of investment

Non tariff barrier by developed countries – all quota restrictions on exports of textiles and clothing have been removed from India, but some developed countries like USA have nor removed their quota restrictions on import of textiles from India.

Ineffective disinvestment policy – under this policy, there has been a substantial loss to the government as assets of the public sector undertakings have been undervalued and sold to the private sector. Moreover, the proceeds from disinvestment were used to compensate the shortage of government revenues rather than using it for the development of PSUs.

Ineffective tax policy – the tax reduction in the reform period was done to generate large revenue and to curb tax evasion. But it did not result in increase in tax revenue for the government.

Spread of consumerism – the new policy has been encouraging a dangerous trend of consumerism by encouraging the production of luxurious items of superior consumption.

Unbalanced growth – growth has been concentrated only in some select areas in the services sector such as telecommunications, information technology, finance, entertainment, travel and hospitality services, real estate and trade rather than vital sectors such as agriculture and industry, which provide livelihood to millions of people in the country.

GLOBALIZATION AND THE INDIAN ECONOMY

GLOBALIZATION

is the outcome of policies of liberalization and privatization.

It means opening up of the economy for the world market by attaching international competitiveness.

It means integrating national economy with world economy through removal of barriers of international and capital movements.

Improving technologies, better transport and communication have enabled companies to expand into global world wide markets

CHANGES MADE BY GLOBALIZATION ON INDIAN ECONOMY

-          The New Economic Policy prepared a specified list of high technology and high investment priority industries in which automatic permission will be available for foreign direct investment upto 51% of foreign equity

-          In respect of foreign technology agreements, automatic permission is provided in high priority industry upto a sum of one crore. No permission is now required for hiring foreign technicians or for testing indigenously developed technology abroad.

-          In order to make interactive adjustment of Indian currency rupee was devalued in July 1991 by nearly 20%. It stimulated exports, discouraged imports.

-          In order to bring the Indian economy within the ambit of global competition, the government has modified the customs duty to a considerable extent. Accordingly, the peak rate of customs duty has been reduced from 250% to 10% in 2007 -08 budget.

Globalization resulted in greater access to global markets, advanced technology and increased the 

possibility for larger industries of developing countries to become important players in the international arena.

According to some scholars, benefits of Globalization accrue more to developed countries as they are able to expand their markets in other countries. Market driven globalization increases the economic disparities among nations and people.

WORLD TRADE ORGANISATION

WTO was set up on 1^st Jan 1995. It was established to replace General Agreement on Trade and Tariff (GATT) set up in 1948 by 23 countries.

The WTO agreement covers trade in goods as well as services, to facilitate international trade.

All member countries are required to adopt laws and policies framed under WTO rules.

Some major functions of the WTO are:

-          To facilitate international trade (both bilateral and multilateral) through removal of tariff as well as non tariff barriers.

-          To establish a rule based trading regime, in which nations cannot place arbitrary restrictions on trade

-          To provide technical assistance and training for developing countries.

-          To ensure optimum utilization of world resources

Bilateral trade – trade between two countries

Multilateral trade – trade between more than two countries

Tariff barriers – barriers which are imposed on imports to make them relatively costly, to protect domestic production. E.g. custom duty

Non tariff barriers – barriers which are imposed on the amount of imports and exports. (restrictions on goods not allowed to be imported or exported)

ROLE OF WTO

WTO oversees the implementation of the significant tariff cuts and reduction on non tariff measures agreed in trade negotiations

It acts as a watch dog of international trade and regularly examines the trade of individual members.

It provides several reconciliation mechanisms for finding an amicable solution to trade conflicts that arise among members.

Trade disputes that cannot be solved through bilateral talks are adjudicated under the WTO Dispute Settlement Court.

WTO is a management consultant for world trade. Its economists keep a watch on the global economy and provide studies on the main trade issues of the day.

RESPONSES TO SOLVE CONFLICTS

CONFLICT

Conflict is an expressed struggle between at least two interdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources and interference from others in achieving their goals’

Emotional, Cognitive and Physical responses to solve conflicts.

Emotional responses are feelings we experience in conflict. These range from anger and pear to despair and confusion. Emotional responses are often misunderstood, as people often feel that or believe that others feel the same way as they do. This can be confusing and at times threatening.

Cognitive responses – are our ideas and thoughts about a conflict. It is the inner voice or internal observation in the midst of a situation. We understand cognitive responses through self-talk. Cognitive responses contribute to emotional and behavioral responses where self-talk enables you to promote a positive or negative feedback loop in the situation.

Physical responses – include heightened stress, body tension, increased perspiration, tunnel vision, accelerated or shallow breathing, nausea and rapid heartbeat. It plays an important role in our ability to meet our needs in conflict. Physical responses can be managed through stress management techniques like establishing a calmer environment.

METHODS OF RESPONDING TO CONFLICTS IN SOCIETY

ADR – Alternative dispute resolution – Negotiation, Mediation and Arbitration – are well known methods to address and resolve conflicts.

Negotiation – is a basic way to settle differences. It involves back and forth communication between the parties in conflict. The goal is to try and find a solution to the conflict.

In negotiation an individual can directly participate in decision making. The individual tries to get the best for oneself while considering the needs and interests of the other side. This negotiated agreement can become a contract and be enforceable.

Mediation – is a voluntary process. An Impartial person / mediator helps with communication and promotes reconciliation between the parties, enabling them to reach a mutually acceptable agreement. Mediation is often the next step is the negotiation is unsuccessful.

Arbitration – is the submission of a disputed matter to an impartial person. Out of court settlement is an example of arbitration. The arbitrator listens to both sides and makes a decision.

EMERGING ISSUES - RIGHT TO LIFE

Right to Life – Article 3 of the UDHR provides that ‘Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person’. This right is the most essential right in order to enable any individual to enjoy all other rights. A person who is deprived of the right to life is deprived of all other rights.

The Right to Life is an inherent right of all. This means that every person, by virtue of being a human being has the inalienable right to live.

This right is protected by law and anyone who violates this right will be punished by law.

Although the right to life is accepted by all as the most basic human right, there are certain issues involved – capital punishment, voluntary euthanasia and abortion.

Capital punishment / death penalty – UDHR and ICCPR do not abolish death penalty. However, there are several restrictions on the states in order to minimize the use of death penalty.

While the right to life is absolute and cannot be denied even to a hardened criminal, it is the duty of the state to protect the life of all persons even if it means it has to take the life of a convicted criminal.

Euthanasia – is the right to die peacefully and with dignity. According to those in favor of Euthanasia, the right to life does not require an individual to go on living. Thus, they fell that euthanasia should be allowed, either by administration of drugs or the withdrawal of life support systems and to put an end to life of those willing patients who are terminally ill. However, the question of willingness of the patient arises as well as the decision of taking away a life cannot reside in the individual’s hands.

Abortion – the question of ‘does a fetus (foetus) have the right to life’ has been a topic of discussion. Abortion or medical termination of pregnancy is the human right of the woman whose life is in danger or whose health is in a critical condition due to the pregnancy. Abortion is allowed in the early stage of pregnancy.

Capital punishment, euthanasia and abortion are highly controversial and debatable topics. Neither the states nor international bodies have been able to come to any specific conclusions on the same.

Essential conditions constructed into the Right to Life under the Indian Constitution

Right to live with human dignity along with the bare necessities of life food, clothing and shelter.

Right to facilities for reading, writing and expressing ourselves.

Right to move about freely, mix and communicate with fellow human beings.

Right to livelihood.

Right to live in a healthy environment.

Right to enjoyment of pollution free water and air

Right to education

Right to health

Right not to be driven out of state

Right to protection against hazardous industries

Right to timely medical treatment in government hospitals.

MIGRATION

Migration is the movement / shifting of people from one place to another. It may be from village to city (rural to urban), from one part of the country to another part of the country or from one country to another country.

Migration within the country is called Internal Migration.

Migration from one country to another country is called International Migration.

When people migrate from their own country to another it is called Emigration and the people are called Emigrants.

When people migrate from other countries to your country they are called Immigrants and the process is called Immigration.

Liberalization, privatization, globalization industrialization and urbanization opened up opportunities in business as well as employment. This led to young, educated, skilled, adventurous, risk bearing people migrating for better prospects.

Developed countries have shortage of labor or labor is costly. Underdeveloped or developing countries have large unutilized or underutilized labor force.

Privatization and globalization have made it possible for both sides to take advantage of this.

Migration has both positive and negative impacts on the countries

Impact of migration on countries of origin:

Improvement in the lifestyle and standard of living of family members in home country. E.g. Kerala

Increasing consumerism amongst the families of emigrants of home country

Brain drain is a serious problem as migrants are well educated, skilled and trained professionals. E.g. 

Doctors, engineers and IT people working in US or UK.

Impact of migration on receiving countries:

Immigrants tend to become the objects of prejudice and discrimination

In some countries immigrants are paid lower wages

Immigrants find it difficult to adjust to changes in climate, food habits, customs and culture.

Being educated skilled and trained they tend to get the best quality human resources for economic development.

DEVALUTION OF RUPEE

Devaluation of Rupee refers to the fall in the value of rupee in terms of foreign currency. Specifically, it implies deliberate official lowering of the value of the country's currency with respect to the foreign currency. 

Devalutaion prevails under the fixed exchange rate regime. This implies that value of rupee has fallen and the value of foreign currency has risen. It means that now (after devaluation) one US$ can be exchanged for more rupees. This encourages exports and discourages imports as the former is cheaper now for foreign countries and the latter is expensive for Indians.

WORLD WIDE WEB WWW

The World Wide Web or The Web is an information system where documents and other web resources can be found and are accessible on the internet.

The resources of world wide web are transferred via hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and can be accessed by users on a web browser. 

The World Wide Web has had an impact on our every day lives and is an important part of the globalization process.

GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

GIS is a computer system that can hold and use data and describes places on the earth’s surface. It collects, stores, retrieves, transforms and displays spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes. GIS is used in planning for locating suitable areas for industrial growth. It helps to check unplanned growth of settlements and industries.

Thematic maps containing digital information on different aspects like water resources, soil types, forest land, grass land is superimposed in a layered form using computer software. 

AGRARIAN CRISIS in India

In the 60’s Green Revolution created a substantial increase in food grain production. Factors responsible were better seeds, irrigation facilities, use of pesticides and insecticides and chemical fertilizers.

However, Indian agriculture depends on monsoon rains which are uncertain, ill distributed and erratic in nature.

Poverty of farmers and small land holdings lead to limited mechanization of crops.

Failure of land reforms, exploitation by landowners and unbalanced development of agriculture leads to limited production of food grains.

Indebted farmers – The growing input cost of agriculture affects small farmers and their families. In Punjab ‘the breadbasket of India’ 89% of farmers are under debt.

Introduction of SEZ – In the name of development, fertile agricultural land is diverted to builders’ lobby to construct high rise buildings, IT Parks, etc.

Poverty – Due to crop failure, rural poverty is on the rise.

Water scarcity – MNC’s food processing, etc., have their plants in rural areas. These MNC’s require huge amounts of water and thus they reduce the ground water. This creates water scarcity in rural areas.

Farmer suicides – 70% of farmers are cultivators of small plots of land. 60% of farmers belong to marginal category. Small land holdings, growing cost of production, increasing debt, low prices of agricultural commodities, lead to farmer suicides

CORPORATE FARMING

‘Corporate farming’ is a term that describes the business of agriculture, the practice of mega-corporations involved in good production on a very large scale.

It includes not only the farm but the entire farming process from seed supply, agrichemicals, food processing, machinery, storage, transport, distribution, marketing, advertising and retail sales.

The term Corporate Farming also includes the influence of corporations on education, research and public policy, through their education funding and government lobbying efforts.

Corporate farming is used synonymously with ‘agribusiness’ and it is seen as a destroyer of the family farm.

The huge opportunities for profit have driven Indian corporations to expanding into agriculture and retail sector.

This is a cause of concern because this is happening without a proper regulatory framework and a lack of comprehensive understanding of the impact on agriculture. Agricultural land use laws are being changed to facilitate the entry and growth of big corporate agencies into agriculture.

Examples:

Bharti Enterprises launched ‘Field Fresh Foods’ in collaboration with UK Brand EL-RO Holdings, an investment arm of Rothschild family. It has put over 4000 acres of cropland under cultivation in Punjab.

Tata Chemicals Agri Business – ‘Khet-Se Agri Produce’ is expanding into bio diesel, fresh fruits and vegetable production and distribution.

Reliance Retail Ltd. (RRL) ‘Farm to Fork’ strategy – its supply chain would trade in the open market as well as serve its ‘Reliance Fresh’ outlets. Reliance Retail has taken 3000 acres of orchards on lease from Himachal Pradesh Horticultural Produce Marketing and Processing Corporation (HPMC)

Thus, corporate framing will control and drive every aspect of agricultural production to distribution to final sale.

The Amendment of Agricultural Produce Marketing Committee Act has paved the way for contract framing in a number of states. Under the model law, a farmer can lease his land for a minimum of eleven months to maximum of thirty months.

Corporate farmers are demanding an amendment in the Revenue Act so that they can lease the land for upto 10 years.

Under contract farming the farmer is supplied seeds and other ingredients by the company and the contractor buys the entire farm produce as per fixed price.

Corporate farming is unfavorable because

-          Change of production in agriculture

-          Producer – owner reduced to worker in corporate farm

-          Agricultural production will be for market and not for need/consumption

-          Replacement of conventional stable production system

-          Transforming food grains-oriented agriculture to cash crop-oriented agriculture i.e. producing crops that are in demand in the local urban market or international market.

GLOBALIZATION AND INDIAN AGRICULTURE

GLOBALISATION AND INDIAN SOCIETY – CHANGES IN AGRARIAN SECTOR DUE TO GLOBALISATION

Agriculture is the backbone of Indian economy. It provides employment to about 70% of the population. Agriculture contributes about 29% of gross domestic production (GDP). It provides raw materials for the agro-based industries like cotton textile, sugar, jute, oilseeds etc., which contribute to about 20% of the exports from India. Thus, it is important to develop agriculture in order to develop rural economy and to increase purchasing power of the rural people.

IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION ON AGRICULTURE

New Economic Policy and New Agricultural Policy

Liberalization, privatization and globalization pressurized the government to adopt the New Economic Policy (NEP) and the New Agricultural Policy (NAP) in 2000.

Objectives:

-          4% growth rate per annum in the next 20 years

-          Favor private participation through contract farming and land leasing

-          Supported Genetically Modified (GM) food crops

-          Priority to agricultural research

-          Production of micro credit and cooperative enterprises

-          Land reforms, consolidation of land holdings, redistribution of surplus land, private land given on lease for cultivation.

Globalization provide opportunities and threats.

Opportunities

-          Knowledge and information for production of agricultural goods and services.

-          Export agricultural produce – crops like mangoes, tea, jute, etc., exported

-          Medicinal plants also in demand for export

-          Increase income from farming – globalization created awareness of opportunities and alternatives for farmers to enhance their income by switching from subsistence farming to cash crop farming.

-          Technological gap bridged by setting up of green houses which enhanced crop growth

-          Setting up of Food Processing Cottage Industries as well as big industrial houses would increase profitability through exports. E.g. Mango pulp

-          Fresh produce retailing through supermarkets, departmental stores and malls with an integrated supply chain back to the farm is becoming popular.

Threats

-          Uncertainty and competitiveness

-          Need for adaptation to change and timely adoption and absorption of technology

-          Poor and illiterate rural and small town with low income affected as they did not have access to technological development

-          This forced them to rethink their occupation

-          Land reforms – there has been land alienation in rural poor farming communities. State governments lobby for industries which are given subsidies and tax concessions. The states acquire lands owned by farmers forcibly under ‘Land Acquisition Act’ give farmers a nominal compensation thus snatching away their only source of livelihood.

-          Polluting rural environment – shifting industries from urban to rural areas lead to environmental pollution. Industries dump untreated waste into the surroundings thus polluting water, land and air in the rural areas

-          Diluted land ceiling legislation – land ceiling legislation is in favor of industry. Corporate companies raise capital in the name of plantations like ‘Green Earth’ and acquire huge tracts of agricultural land and use it for industrial purposes.

-          Change in cropping patterns – water intensive crops like sugar cane are displacing vital food crops. Agriculture is now focused towards export markets and is ignoring local markets.

-          Ecological crisis – food markets cater to the upper middle class. The poor have to satisfy themselves with inflation, high food prices, and low food quality. Increase in use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, HYV (High Yield Variety) seeds, is affecting the ground water levels as well as the ecology of the rural areas.

-          Loss of biodiversity – tribal lands are exploited by industries thus depleting biodiversity. Plantation of commercially profitable trees like eucalyptus, teak, etc., destroy the bio diversity and this affects Adivasis who depend on the forest for fuel, medicinal herbs, food and livelihood.

Other factors

-          Investment and subsidies – The government must ensure subsidies in order to promote agriculture. Government and public investments in agriculture. There is an urgent need for investment in infrastructure like irrigation, research and marketing, storage facilities, etc.

-          Danger to food sufficiency at national level – India has a large population with low purchasing power. Big farmers export their produce at high prices rather than selling in local markets at lower prices. To avoid this situation the government must keep trade of agricultural commodities under its control.

-          Application of TRIP and Agriculture in India – TRIP (Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights) of WTO to Agriculture, patenting for seed and plants. Patenting transfers all benefits to the MNCs from developing countries. The Agricultural department (Government of India) should provide incentives to Indian scientists to develop patents for as many plants through research in agricultural universities.