STUFF SIMPLIFIED: Foundation Course II

While all the above topics can be expressed in your own words and have been discussed in class the links will help as guidelines for your answer. However, you may express your answers in your own words and giving / explaining your point of view. All the Best!!!

Sunday, 28 February 2021

STEREOTYPES

The definition of a stereotype is any commonly known public belief about a certain social group or a type of individual.

Stereotypes are often confused with prejudices, because, like prejudices, a stereotype is based on a prior assumption. Stereotypes are often created about people of specific cultures or races.

Almost every culture or race has a stereotype.

Stereotypes are not just centered on different races and backgrounds, however. Gender stereotypes also exist. For example, if you say that men are better than women, you're stereotyping all men and all women. If you say that all women like to cook, you are stereotyping women.

Sexual orientation stereotypes are also common. These stereotypes occur when you have negative views on gays, lesbians, and transgender individuals. People who have these negative views are often known as homophobic.

Any time you group races or individuals together and make a judgment about them without knowing them, it is an example of a stereotype. Racial remarks, sexual remarks, and gender remarks are the biggest stereotypes.

Common Stereotypes

Racial Profiling - One of the more common stereotype examples is stereotypes surrounding race. For example, saying that all Blacks are good at sports is a stereotype, because it's grouping the race together to indicate that everyone of that race is a good athlete.

Gender Profiling There are also some common stereotypes of men and women, such as:

Men are strong and do all the work.
Men are the "backbone."
Women aren't as smart as a man.
Women can't do as good of a job as a man.
Girls are not good at sports.
Guys are messy and unclean.
Men who spend too much time on the computer or read are geeks.

Cultures - Stereotypes also exist about cultures and countries as a whole. Stereotype examples of this sort include the premises that:

All white Americans are obese, lazy, and dim-witted. Homer Simpson of the TV series The Simpsons is the personification of this stereotype.
Mexican stereotypes suggest that all Mexicans are lazy and came into America illegally.
All Arabs and Muslims are terrorists.
All people who live in England have bad teeth.
Italian or French people are the best lovers.
All Blacks outside of the United States are poor.
All Jews are greedy.
All Asians are good at math. All Asians like to eat rice and drive slow.
All Irish people are drunks and eat potatoes.
All Americans are generally considered to be friendly, generous, and tolerant, but also arrogant, impatient, and domineering.

Groups of Individuals

A different type of stereotype also involves grouping of individuals. Skaters, Goths, Gangsters, are a few examples. For example:

Goths wear black clothes, black makeup, are depressed and hated by society.
Punks wear mohawks, spikes, chains, are a menace to society and are always getting in trouble.
All politicians are philanders and think only of personal gain and benefit.
Girls are only concerned about physical appearance.
All blonds are unintelligent.
All librarians are women who are old, wear glasses, tie a high bun, and have a perpetual frown on their face.
All teenagers are rebels.
All children don't enjoy healthy food.
Only anorexic women can become models.
The elderly have health issues and behave like children.

Sexual Stereotypes - Sexual stereotypes, on the other hand, suggest that any feminine man is gay and any masculine woman is a lesbian. Those who believe gay stereotypes may also believe that homosexuality is immoral, wrong and an abomination.

Stereotyping is not only hurtful, it is also wrong. Even if the stereotype is correct in some cases, constantly putting someone down based on your preconceived perceptions will not encourage them to succeed.

Stereotyping can lead to bullying from a young age. Stereotyping is encouraging bullying behavior that children carry into adulthood.

Stereotyping can also lead people to live lives driven by hate and can cause the victims of those stereotypes to be driven by fear. For example, many gays and lesbians are afraid to admit their sexuality in fear of being judged. It is a lose-lose situation, both for those who are propagating the stereotype and those who are victims.

Monday, 4 January 2021

FOUNDATION COURSE II SYLLABUS

Module 1. Globalization and Indian society

Understanding the concepts of Liberalization, Privatization & Globalization, growth of information technology and communication and its impact manifested in everyday life. Impact of globalization on industry, changes in employment and increasing migration. changes in agrarian sector due to globalization, rise in corporate farming and increase in farmers suicides.

Module 2. Human Rights

Concept of human rights, origin and evolution of the concept, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Human Rights Constituents with special reference to Fundamental Rights stated in the Constitution.

Module 3. Ecology

Importance of environment studies in the current developmental context, understanding concepts of environment, Ecology and their interconnectedness. Environment as natural capital and connection to quality of human life. Environmental degradation causes and impact on human life. sustainable development - concept and components, poverty and environment.

Module 4. Understanding stress and conflict

Causes of stress and conflict in individuals and society. Agents of socialization and the role played by them in developing the individual, stereotyping and prejudice as significant factors in causing conflict in society

Friday, 6 March 2020

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SELF ACTUALIZED PERSON

According to Psychology, Self-Actualization is achieved when you are able to reach your full potential.

According to Maslow’s Theory of Self Actualization, when the needs at the base of the pyramid are

met, an individual is able to focus on self-actualization. Maslow interpreted human motivation as a search for self-actualization. According to him, all individual have higher growth needs such as the need for self-actualization or deveopment of self and understanding oneself. These growth needs help to make an individual distinctly human. Such persons have a stable personality and are not emotionally disturbed people. Self-actualized people generally fulfill their basic potentialities and therefore are considered as 'optimal' people.

Self-Actualized individuals have frequent peak experiences – A self-actualized person is able to experience feelings of limitless horizons. The individual emerges changed and transformed.

They possess Self-Acceptance and a Democratic world view.

Self-Actualized individuals accept themselves and others as they are. They live a life free of guilt and treat all people the same regardless of background, status or socio-economic and cultural factors.

They do not let their emotions, prejudices, etc. influence any of their perceptions.

They are Realistic and are able to view life logically and rationally.

These individuals tend to be Problem Centered as they have a strong sense of personal ethics and responsibility.

Self-actualized individuals are autonomous – They tend to be independent and do not conform to others ideas for happiness or contentment.

They enjoy Solitude and Privacy – as well as the company of others. However, they prefer to take time off for themselves to focus on personal discovery and to cultivate their individual potential.

They have a thoughtful sense of humor, are able to laugh at themselves and don’t ridicule others.

Self-Actualized individuals are spontaneous and don’t feel confined by norms. They are open and unconventional.

They fully enjoy the journey not just the destination. While Self Actualized individuals have concrete goals, they enjoy the process of reaching the goals too.

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs is a motivational theory in Psychology comprising of a five-tier model of human needs.

Physiological Needs – these are biological requirements for human survival. For e.g. air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, sex, sleep. If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally. These needs, according to Maslow, are the most important without which other needs cannot be fulfilled.

Safety Needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear.

Love and Belonging Needs – The third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belonging. The need for interpersonal relationships motivates behavior. E.g. Friendship, trust, intimacy, etc.

Esteem Needs – are divided into two categories – esteem fo oneself – dignity, achievement, independence; and the desire for reputation or respect from others – status, prestige

Self-Actualization Needs – realizing personal potential, self fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences.

CRITICISM

Maslow's model is a very popular model, but theoretically, there are a lot of loopholes.

The rigidity with which Maslow has sequenced theres needs. Critics have objected to the order of the needs. Though all needs are perceived, they don't have to be in the same order.

Accordint ot certain other critics, all needs given by Maslow may not be or perceive all needs. For e.g. some individuals will skip love and affection and go from safety to esteem.

There is no emperical evidence (observed cases) at all to substantiate this theory. According to critics, this theory is presented in a vaccume only to counter Freudian theory.

AGGRESSION

Aggression is defined as behavior that is intended to harm another individual who does not wish to be harmed – Baron and Richardson, 1997.

Aggression intends to destroy another person’s property or to injure another person, physically or psychologically.

Public aggression is seen in the form of communal conflicts, casteist clashes, racial discrimination, etc.

Aggression is a result of the frustration of not achieving basic needs. It is not an essential part of human nature, but a reaction to circumstances in which essential needs are unfulfilled.

Nonphysical aggression includes gossiping, spreading rumors, criticizing people behind their back, bullying, turning people against each other, etc.

There are various reasons for people and societies to turn to aggression.

Neurosis – is caused by the frustration of not being able to achieve basic human needs. The neurotic individual has irrational thoughts and acts irrationally thus harming not only himself but also others.

Media – watching and imitating violent behavior on television increases the likelihood to short term aggression among children.

Frustration – when a person is unable to achieve his or her goals.

Anger - Individual’s feel angry when they sense that they or someone they care about has been offended. Anger can be destructive when it does not find its proper outlet of expression and it sometimes leads to aggression.

Cultural causes – cultural influence plays in important role in the behavior of an individual. Humans have a natural tendency to be aggressive and society and culture can effect how much aggression is allowed.

Peers – An individual’s peer group influences how aggressive or violent they are. Negative groups like gangs can cause someone to be violent. Peer groups can also influence individuals to reduce aggressive behavior.

Social learning theory – people tend to imitate people around them. When parents are aggressive, children learn this behavior and follow the same. However, a parent is able to influence the child through non-violence and understanding the child’s behavior is moulded to be non-aggressive.

Economic causes – when people compete for the same resources it leads to conflict and aggression. E.g. property, jobs, income, housing. It is similar with natural resources.

Political causes – people become aggressive when they are unhappy with how the are governed. The most common conflicts occur when a particular group wants to be independent from a governing body. E.g. conflicts in Egypt.

Religious and political differences – conflicts also arise when people’s beliefs clash. Religious views are sensitive, and people depend on these views for a sense of identity and belonging. However, when religious groups are attacked because of a belief, there can be aggression. Politicians use aggression and promote differences in order to come to power and stay in power.

Ethnic differences – Peoples ethnicity gives them a sense of identity and any threat can cause aggression.

Most conflicts arise when people feel threatened and anger leads to aggression.

ENVIRONMENT

The concept of environment is complex and comprehensive. Environment is made up of both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components.

Environment may be defined as a science concerned with all the problems faced by man in relation to the surrounding totality.

The nature of environmental studies is heterogeneous and dynamic. Man has modified his biotic and physical surroundings. He is constantly exploiting resources. This has led to deterioration of environmental quality. Some of the major problems are population explosion, soil erosion, deforestation, pollution of air, water and land and extinction of living species.

The scope of environment studies is extensive.

Environmental study enables man to accept his responsibility towards the environment. It enables him to control environmental degradation by using resources sustainably.

The word 'environment' comes from the word 'environ' which means 'to be around'.

Environment can be defined as teh sum total of all external conditions and influences that affect life on earth.

ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS

Physical / Natural Environment - is of two types Abiotic and Biotic

Abiotic / Non living components:

Location - The location of a country is a prime factor that influences human activities (especially climate). Location is of two types:

Absolute lcoation - is defined by the lines of latitudes and longitudes. It is the exact location of a place on the ground.

Polar areas experience low temperature

Tropical areas have high temperature and rainfall.

Middle latitudes have moderate temperature and rainfall.

Relative Location of a place is its position in relation to other features like roads, railways, sea, market, etc.

Maritime Locations provide facility of water transport.

Continental Locations lack facility of cheap water transport. e.g., Nepal depends on Kolkata (in India) for trading activities.

Topography - Physical features of a region like mountains, plateaus, plains, valleys, etc., form the topography. It influences the development of economic activities.

e.g., Mountainous regions economically underdeveloped due to inaccessibility. Matheran

River valleys and plains - human settlements - transport and agriculture.

Climate - is the most fundamental factor of physical environment. It influences plant growth, types of houses man builds for himself, economic activities, etc.

e.g. Cool climate keeps man energetic and hardworking. Hot climate makes man physically weaker and exhausted.

Shape and size of a country - Large countries like USA, India are likely to have wider range of resources which leads to higher economic growth and development.

Smaller countries like Japan and UK have limitations in teh availability of resources and have to depend on imports.

Compact countries have high econmic development as coordination of resources becomes easy.

Fragmented countries (Phillipines) face problems of overall development.

Country having latitudinal extent or elongated shape (Chile / Peru) face problems of political control and integration.

Coastline - Water transport is teh cheapest. Most world trade is carried on by water transport. An indented or broken coastline provides ideal locations for development of harbors and ports.

Minerals - are the most unevenly distributed resource on the surface of the earth. this has led to large scale trade in minerals and power resources. Areas rich in mineral deposits attract large number of people to areas less suitable for humna settlement e..g., Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq (oil deposits).

Soil - Different types of soils are found in different regions. Soil is a governing factor in growing crops. Fertility of soil controls the quality and quantity of crops.

Biotic / Living Components

Natural Vegetation - Plants and vegetation form the livig natural components of environment. They play a major role in maintaining natural ecological balance. Natural vegetation provides a base for a variety of economic activities like lumbering, hunting, etc.

Animals - including man and other micro organisms are living components of the environment. A large variety of animals depend on climatic and physical conditions. Herbivors - grass eating

carnivors - flesh eating Omnivores - both plant and flesh eaters

Cultural / Manmade Components

Social environment - develops as a consequence of humna traits like religion and ethnic character of the population.

Political Environment - Government plays an important role in promoting peoples welfare through economic development. The political conditions prevailing in a country directly affects the flow of commerce of that country. Different countries follow different political systems. for e.g., Democracy, Dictatorship, etc. The government policies of taxation, quota system, development of industries, determine the political envrionment of the country.

Economic Enviornment - develops as a result of economic activities of man like farming, mining, trading, etc.

Technological envrionment - Technology used for developing resources plays a significant role in improving the economic environment of a country. Mechanization allows mass production. Technological innovations enhance the quality of production. Technology promotes economic development but improper use of technology leads to serious problems like growth of unemployment and deterioration of environment through air and water pollution.

Monday, 2 March 2020

PREJUDICE

Prejudice is a baseless and usually negative attitude towards members of a group.

Common features of Prejudice are negative feelings, stereotyped beliefs and tendency to discriminate against members of the group.

Prejudice can be based on a number of factors like racism, sexism, classicism, nationalism, ageism, religious prejudice, etc.

Prejudice results in stereotyping and discrimination.

A stereotype is an assumption about a group based on prior assumptions. Stereotypes can be both positive and negative.

Thursday, 27 February 2020

ECOLOGY

The term ‘ecology’ is derived from two Greek words ‘Oikos’ meaning ‘home’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘study’. Thus the term ecology means the study of ‘living systems at home’ / the study of all living systems in relation to their respective environment.

Ecology is a sub-discipline of biology (the study of life)

Definition – Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms.

THE ENVIRONMENT IS A FUNCTIONING LIVE SYSTEM

Environment is the sum of total conditions and surroundings of man in which he inhabits, interacts and influences and is influenced. It is a comprehensive term.

No organism can live in isolation. It depends on its natural environment.

The environment which comprises of a network of living and non living components, constantly interact and are in a state of balance. Any change in one of the components or processes triggers off a chain of reactions over a period of time and space.

e.g. Increase in the use of fossil fuels has led to high emission of Carbon Monoxide and Lead Oxide which leads to depletion of the ozone layer which controls UV radiation. This in turn causes skin cancer.

It is thus important to understand the need for natural systems and their inter dependence on each other. Only then will we be able to respect the environment which looks after all our needs.

Thus the environment is a functioning live system.

STRESS & STRESS MANAGEMENT

What is stress?

Stress is a body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical, mental or emotional adjustment or response.

It affects an individual’s ability to cope with situations

There are three perspectives to stress – an event, a reaction and a transaction

When we associate stress with an event the event is called a stressor. E.g. divorce, illness

Stress can also be thought of as a reaction to an event. You may respond with ‘fight’ of ‘flight’.

It leads to increased heart rate, tension, high blood sugar, etc.

STRESS MANAGEMENT

Relax – Use relaxation techniques like mediation, yoga and deep breathing to activate the body’s relaxation response. If practiced regularly, these activities lead to a reduction in your stress levels. They also boost serenity and joy and increasing one’s ability to stay calm and collected under pressure.

Adopting the right attitude can turn a negative stress into a positive one.

Exercise – Regular physical exertion – a thirty-minute walk, Pilates, free weight work out, swimming – helps build strength, resilience and energy.

Healthy Diet – Eating healthy foods and avoiding sugary and fattening treats helps keep your body in balance.

Socialization and supportive conversations – Sharing your feelings with a trusted friend, family member, mentor, psychotherapy and counseling, can help you feel better and deal with situations better.

Time management – sometimes stress is caused on account of poor management of time / poor organization. Learning how to manage appointments, to say ‘no’ to requests you cannot fulfill, organize records, setting alarms, etc., can help make a difference.

Invest in your emotional health – Most of us tend to ignore our emotional health unless there is a problem. People with good emotional health are able to bounce back from stress and adversity as they are focused and resilient.

Keep a positive attitude – Holding positive thoughts rather than negative thoughts go a long way in maintaining a positive attitude. Think positively about yourself. Surround yourself with positive and inspiring people.

Participate in activities you enjoy – Make time for hobbies and interests. Read a good book / volunteer your services / join a sports team / engage in gardening, etc.

Get enough sleep – Getting 7-8 hours of sleep will enable you to cope with stress and distress. If you are well-rested, you can deal with situations better.

Remember to laugh – Laughter is one of the best medicines. It releases chemicals into the brain that promote relaxation. People who find humor tend to be more productive, live longer and have less physical problems. A good laugh a day keeps stress away.

VARIABILITY IN STRESS / THREE WAYS TO COPE WITH STRESS

We see variability in stress among different people at different times. For e.g. slow moving traffic can cause stress if you are getting late for an exam / appointment. However on another day slow moving traffic will not make a difference to you.

The ‘three’ things that help people cope with stress are:

Challenge – see difficulties as an opportunity for change and growth

Control – believe that you can arrange situations to be the master of your life

Commitment – to be engaged with life and its circumstances and not just watch your life go by.

Although each source of stress will evoke specific reactions to it, a general reaction to all stress through the three way to cope with stress will help you in any situation.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

‘Sustainable Development is the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs’ – Brundtland 1987

NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

With industrialization and development, we end up exploiting our resources. Thus, there is a need for Sustainable Development.

Environmental issues – Human beings have understood the various processes and forces operating in the natural environment and use these resources to benefit and satisfy needs and wants. However, man needs to understand how this exploitation is affecting the environment.

Human capacity – to use environmental forces and natural resources depends on scientific and technological development. It is seen that the rate of exploitation of resources and the pollution created in the process is higher in industrial economies as compared to underdeveloped economies.

Cost of development – Although humankind enjoys the fruit of development, the environment is degraded and polluted on account of exploitation of resources. But development and human greed leads to an even more rapid rate of exploitation of resources.

Resource exploitation – The reckless exploitation of resources has led to wastage, over exploitation, depletion and degradation of resources. This in turn makes resource exploitation unsustainable.

Resource consumption – Many resources like fossil fuels and minerals are on or near the verge of exhaustion. Fossil fuels are responsible for air pollution.

Although resources like forests, water, air are known to have the capacity to regenerate, the rate at which they are exploited is tremendous and these resources are also being depleted, for e.g. deforestation.

Future development processes need to be more rational in their use of natural resources as well as adopting technologies that are environmentally friendly. It is important to realize that sustainable future lies in our hand and only if we alter our values, beliefs and behavior, can we ensure proper sustainable development.

GOALS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

The President’s Council for Sustainable Development (USA) have put forth goals for sustainable development. Some of the goals are as follows

Ensure every person the benefits of a healthy environment.

Sustain a healthy economy that affords the opportunity for a high quality of life

Ensure equity and opportunity for economic, social and environmental well-being.

Protect and restore natural resources for current and future generations

Encourage stewardship

Encourage people to work together to create healthy communities

Create full opportunity for citizens, business, and communities to participate in and influence the

natural resources, environmental and economic decisions that affect them.

Move towards stabilization of the World Population.

Take lead in developing and carrying out sustainable development policies globally.

Ensure access to formal education and lifelong learning that will prepare citizens for meaningful work and a high quality of life and give them an understanding of concepts involved in sustainable development.

Sustainable Development is the need of the day.

SOCIALIZATION & AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION

Socialization is the process through which an individual inherits the norms, customs and ideologies of the social order in which they live.

Socialization is necessary in order to make an individual capable of interacting within a society. It is a lifelong process where one keeps learning and developing oneself as a human being.

An individual learns socialization through the agents of socialization. An individual responds differently to different agents of socialization.

The main agents of socialization are:

Family – is the most important agent of socialization. It helps mould an individual. Family values, beliefs, religious inclinations and political views shape an individual’s outlook towards society. Parents are the biggest influencers in the social development of children.

School – is the next important influencer after the family. Schools help impart knowledge, create awareness and inculcate the feeling of tolerance in individuals. Schools form the second step in socialization as a child now meets different children and learns to adapt as well as understand right and wrong, good and bad.

Community and culture – help an individual interact with other individuals with a similar mind set / ideology. This helps pass on religious views as well as cultural traditions.

Peers / friends – Meeting like minded people, making friends and hanging out are part of an individual’s way of making social contact. Peers / friends have an impact on the thoughts and ideas of individuals. Individuals also learn to behave in a manner that will be acceptable to their peers. This is an important aspect of socialization.

Mass media – Today people are strongly influenced by mass media. Political, religious and social views are enforced through repeated exposure and arguments put forth by agents of mass media.

The different positive attributes fed by agents of socialization create harmony in an individual and makes him feel confident. It also enables individuals understand and respect social etiquette.

Thus the agents of socialization play an important role in an individuals life.

Sunday, 16 February 2020

INDIA - ECONOMIC REFORMS POST LPG

APPRAISAL OF LPG POLICIES (ECONOMIC REFORMS)

Liberalization, Privatization and Globalization created mixed reactions

Arguments in favor of Economic reforms

Increase in rate of economic growth – the growth of GDP increased during the reform period

Foreign exchange reserves increased along with inflow of foreign investments

Inflation was under control

The role of the private sector increased. The abolition of the licensing system and removal of restrictions on entry of the private sector earlier reserved for the public sector have enlarged the area of operation of the private sector.

CRITICISM OF ECONOMIC REFORMS

Neglect of agriculture – public investment in agricultural sector especially in infrastructure which includes irrigation, power, roads, market linkages and research were reduced in the reform period.

Removal of the fertilizer subsidy increased the cost of production which adversely affected the small and marginal farmers.

After the commencement of WTO a number of policy changes were made like reduction in import duties on agricultural products, removal of minimum support price and lifting of quantitative restriction on agricultural products.

Due to export oriented policy strategies in agriculture the production shifted from good grains to cash corps for the export market. It led to the rise in prices of food grains.

Growing unemployment – in the public sector, on the plea of overstaffing and redundancy and in the private sector on the plea of modernization and technical upgradation, workers were gradually being retrenched or forced to accept voluntary retirement.

Low level of industrial growth

Cheaper imported goods replaced the demand for domestic goods and domestic manufacturers started facing competition from imports.

Lack of infrastructure facilities including power supply due to lack of investment

Non tariff barrier by developed countries – all quota restrictions on exports of textiles and clothing have been removed from India, but some developed countries like USA have nor removed their quota restrictions on import of textiles from India.

Ineffective disinvestment policy – under this policy, there has been a substantial loss to the government as assets of the public sector undertakings have been undervalued and sold to the private sector. Moreover, the proceeds from disinvestment were used to compensate the shortage of government revenues rather than using it for the development of PSUs.

Ineffective tax policy – the tax reduction in the reform period was done to generate large revenue and to curb tax evasion. But it did not result in increase in tax revenue for the government.

Spread of consumerism – the new policy has been encouraging a dangerous trend of consumerism by encouraging the production of luxurious items of superior consumption.

Unbalanced growth – growth has been concentrated only in some select areas in the services sector such as telecommunications, information technology, finance, entertainment, travel and hospitality services, real estate and trade rather than vital sectors such as agriculture and industry, which provide livelihood to millions of people in the country.