Provincial administration – The Guptas followed a highly
de-centralized system of administering the provinces since their empire was so
large. Thus, the empire was divided into several provinces called Vishayas,
each headed by a Vishayapati. He was assisted by 4 ministers who were in charge
of merchants, traders, artisans and clerks. Together they formed the provincial
council i.e., the Adhikarana. Besides these ministers, a number of other
officials helped in local administration. These included the village headmen and
council (Gramika), collectors of tolls and custom’s duties, record writers
(Lekhakas) etc. Some provinces were headed by princes of the royal family and the
Yuvraja always administered one province for experience.
The villages were administered by the Headman and a council
of elders. Many villages together formed a Pethaka or Santhaka. Several of
these together were called a Vithi and many Vithis formed a Vishaya. Cities of
the Gupta empire were administered by the Nagarakashaha who was responsible to the
Vishayaati. Important cities included Magadha, Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Ujjain.
The Gupta Economy
The Gupta period was called the Golden Age not only because
of its cultural development, but also because of its prosperity. The political stability
provided by the Gupta rulers led to a well-developed economy which in turn provided
the funds for literature, architecture, etc. Agriculture, industry, and trade
were the chief areas of the economy.
Agriculture remained the predominant occupation but did not
contribute to the Gupta economy as extensively as trade and industry. Traditional
methods of cultivation continued and according to Varahmihira, farmers relied
on rainfall for irrigation. Thus, in years of poor monsoon, the harvest was
substantially reduced.
Farmers harvested two crops. They grew a variety of crops
such as wheat, rice, pulses, medicinal herbs, vegetables and fruits. Each farmer’s
area of cultivation was demarcated though some villages cultivated and paid
taxes collectively. Land tax was moderate and usually paid in kind.
Industry – goods were produced in villages and cities by
artisans. These were traded in local bazaars as well as exported to different
areas. Artisans of a particular skill usually formed their own guild and hence there
were weaver’s guilds, jeweler’s guilds, etc. Textiles, cotton and silk, iron
works, pottery, jewelry, embroidery, etc., were the main industrial products.
Trade and commerce – Trade was both inland and foreign. Goods
were traded between villages and between villages and cities. Goods coming to
the cities were also exported while imports found their way from the cities to
smaller towns and villages. Foreign trade was by land and sea. The passes of
the north and the silk route were used for trade with China, Persia and Europe.
Sea trade was well developed. Kalyan, Chaul, Broach and Cambay were the main
Gupta ports though export was also conducted through the Coromandel and Malabar
coasts. The Gupta empire had trade links with Arabia, the East Coast of Africa,
the Roman Empire, Ceylon, Malay and South East Asia. The main items of export
were textiles, salt, spices and gemstones, while gold, silver, coins, coral,
dates and horses were imported.
The guild system was the backbone of trade and commerce in the
Gupta period. They functioned like chambers of commerce and each type of
artisan, banker and merchant had their own guild. Each guild had a fixed hierarchy,
they organized their members, improved their bargaining power and provided
banking facilities to their members. Whenever a guild member sent a consignment
of goods or a letter or signed an agreement, it was accompanied by the seat of
the individual and the guild. If a particular trade was declining in an area,
the entire guild would migrate to another place.
The guilds had specific rules and regulations to govern its
members and trade practices. Thus, commercial crimes and cheating were almost
unheard of in the Gupta period. Members of the guild had to abide by its rules
and if the individual practiced two trades of skills, he could only belong to
one guild. President and an executive committee of 4 or 5 members. Since they
provided security to the artisans and traders and fostered industry through
their banking activities, the Guptas encouraged the guilds and gave them a fair
degree of autonomy. In time these guilds flourished, and they began patronizing
temples, architecture, public works, etc.
According to various sources, the standard of living in the
Gupta Empire was good as basic commodities were always available at affordable prices.
The cities were the most prosperous and people enjoyed public amenities and
cultural activities.
Society – The Gupta Age marked the revival of Brahmanical Hinduism.
Thus, many social practices and institutions were based on Hinduism. The caste
system continued and Brahmins enjoyed many privileges which were protected by
the Guptas who themselves were Brahmins. Yet, social mobility did occur since
people change their professions and even Shudras became traders. But the lowest
castes of people could change their professions and even Shudras became
traders. But the lowest castes of Untouchables faced tremendous discrimination
and were forced to live outside villages and towns.
Women during this age were dependent on their families. They
were married at early ages and did not have much to say in the choice of husband.
Once married, she was restricted to the household duties. The practices of Sati
and polygamy were increasingly popular especially among the upper castes. Widows
were discouraged form remarrying. Education and training in the arts was given to
girls from richer families but they were taught at home. Intermarriage between
castes was permitted and interracial marriages were also frequent. The joint
family system became stronger during this period but widows and daughters had
no rights to property.
The diet of the people was vegetarian and non-vegetarian,
though the Brahmins looked down upon meat eating. Pan chewing and foreign wines
also became popular. Garments included dhoti-kurta for men, to which the Scythians
added an overcoat. Women began to drape long pieces of cloth around them which
developed into the sari. Jewelry was elaborate and popular with both men and
women. Richer women also used cosmetics like kajal and perfumes and spent hours
making elaborate hairstyles. Dice games and chess were popular pastimes while animal
fights, drama, dancing and music provided environment.
Cultural developments
The Gupta Age was one of the most culturally productive eras
of India. It saw tremendous growth in sculpture, architecture, painting,
minting of coins and literature.
Sculpture – The Gandhara School of Art reached its peak
during this age and a vast number of sculptures were created synthesizing
elements from Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese and Indian styles. Buddhism and
images of Buddha were the most common theme while the material for the
sculptures was black stone. Later, this style of sculpture was also used for
stone and metal work.
Architecture – Between the 1st and 5th
centuries AD, a number of monasteries were built in the Gandhara style. They usually
consisted of living quarters for the monks and a stupa. These were decorated
with images of Buddha and stories from the Buddhist teachings.
Painting – Buddhism not only influenced sculpture and
architecture, but also inspired the wall paintings of Ajanta caves. Monks leveled,
plasteed and then painted ‘frescoes’ telling stories of human existence and Buddhism.
These paintings that include animals, humans and floral designs were executed
with natural dyes and colors which have remained fresh and vibrant through the centuries.
Coinage – Under the Guptas the technique of coinage became
a fine art. The Guptas issued coins in gold, silver, and coper with a variety
of designs. Chandragupta I issued coins featuring his Queen Kumaradevi’s name
along with his. Samudragupta issued a large variety of coins being the title
Vikramanka. In his military coins he is shown holding a bow and arrow, a battle
axe or trampling a tiger. Other coins depict hism playing musical instruments
like the veena, or performing the Ashwamedh sacrifice. Chandragupta II also
issued many coins using the title of Vikramaditya. His silver coins used the
same imprint as that used in the western satraps along with the Gupta symbol. He
was shown killing a lion, holding a sword, etc. His gold coins are considered even
more sophisticated in design and finish than the other Guptas. Besides the
king, Gupta coins usually bore the image of a goddess on the other surface
while Chandragupta II introduced the Garuda (vehicle of Vishnu), perhaps signifying
the rise of Vaishnavite Hinduism.
Literature – The greatest development during the Gupta Age
was in the field of literature. Sanskrit was the chief language. Education was
also developing with Nalanda becoming a world famous center for scholars. The kings,
especially Samudragupta and Chandragupta II patronized scholars and writers.
Harisena was an eminent poet and the biographer of
Samudragupta. His poem engraved on the Allahabad Prashasti is the chief source
of information on Samudragupta. Kalidas became the greatest writer of the age
with timeless stories like Shakuntala, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, etc.
Sudaraka was a famous dramatist while Upavarsha and Bandhayan were famous
philosophers. Works on medical science, astronomy and law were also composed. Aryabhatta
and Varahamihira were famous astronomers. The Puranas were updated and the Smritis
of Yanavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were also written. The accounts
of foreign visitors like Fa Hien, the Chinese scholar who visited the court of
Chandragupta II also added to the historical literature of the age.
The Gupta Age – the Golden Age
The Gupta Age has been referred to as the ‘Augustan Age in the
history of India’, ‘the Classical Age’ or the ‘Golden Age of India’. Thus was the
Gupta Age deserving of such praise. Some scholars agree while others do not.
Dr Vincent Smith – ‘The Gupta period was a time of exceptional
intellectural activity in many fields’.
Dr Mehandale – ‘The political unity and prosperity of India
under the Guptas combined with the staunch patronage that they extended to
Sanskrit learning resulted in the flourishing of Sanskrit literature in all branches.
It was that period that produced the best authors in almost all branches of
literature, including the sciences like astronomy and mathematics’.
Dr. A. K. Majumdar – ‘A new chapter in the history of India
begins with the Guptas. Sanskrit literature reached its peak of glory during
this age. The contribution of the Gupta Age in the realm of art is also considered
classical’.
Dr. Romila Thapar – ‘The Gupta age was classical only for
the upper classes of society. The common man did not share in these luxuries’. –
This view is also held by Subaltern historians like Ranjit Guha. According to
him, life for the common man continued in the same way as before and none of
the ‘glory’ of the Guptas affected their everyday life.
