THE GUPTA PERIOD

 Provincial administration – The Guptas followed a highly de-centralized system of administering the provinces since their empire was so large. Thus, the empire was divided into several provinces called Vishayas, each headed by a Vishayapati. He was assisted by 4 ministers who were in charge of merchants, traders, artisans and clerks. Together they formed the provincial council i.e., the Adhikarana. Besides these ministers, a number of other officials helped in local administration. These included the village headmen and council (Gramika), collectors of tolls and custom’s duties, record writers (Lekhakas) etc. Some provinces were headed by princes of the royal family and the Yuvraja always administered one province for experience.

The villages were administered by the Headman and a council of elders. Many villages together formed a Pethaka or Santhaka. Several of these together were called a Vithi and many Vithis formed a Vishaya. Cities of the Gupta empire were administered by the Nagarakashaha who was responsible to the Vishayaati. Important cities included Magadha, Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Ujjain.

The Gupta Economy

The Gupta period was called the Golden Age not only because of its cultural development, but also because of its prosperity. The political stability provided by the Gupta rulers led to a well-developed economy which in turn provided the funds for literature, architecture, etc. Agriculture, industry, and trade were the chief areas of the economy.

Agriculture remained the predominant occupation but did not contribute to the Gupta economy as extensively as trade and industry. Traditional methods of cultivation continued and according to Varahmihira, farmers relied on rainfall for irrigation. Thus, in years of poor monsoon, the harvest was substantially reduced.

Farmers harvested two crops. They grew a variety of crops such as wheat, rice, pulses, medicinal herbs, vegetables and fruits. Each farmer’s area of cultivation was demarcated though some villages cultivated and paid taxes collectively. Land tax was moderate and usually paid in kind.

Industry – goods were produced in villages and cities by artisans. These were traded in local bazaars as well as exported to different areas. Artisans of a particular skill usually formed their own guild and hence there were weaver’s guilds, jeweler’s guilds, etc. Textiles, cotton and silk, iron works, pottery, jewelry, embroidery, etc., were the main industrial products.

Trade and commerce – Trade was both inland and foreign. Goods were traded between villages and between villages and cities. Goods coming to the cities were also exported while imports found their way from the cities to smaller towns and villages. Foreign trade was by land and sea. The passes of the north and the silk route were used for trade with China, Persia and Europe. Sea trade was well developed. Kalyan, Chaul, Broach and Cambay were the main Gupta ports though export was also conducted through the Coromandel and Malabar coasts. The Gupta empire had trade links with Arabia, the East Coast of Africa, the Roman Empire, Ceylon, Malay and South East Asia. The main items of export were textiles, salt, spices and gemstones, while gold, silver, coins, coral, dates and horses were imported.

The guild system was the backbone of trade and commerce in the Gupta period. They functioned like chambers of commerce and each type of artisan, banker and merchant had their own guild. Each guild had a fixed hierarchy, they organized their members, improved their bargaining power and provided banking facilities to their members. Whenever a guild member sent a consignment of goods or a letter or signed an agreement, it was accompanied by the seat of the individual and the guild. If a particular trade was declining in an area, the entire guild would migrate to another place.

The guilds had specific rules and regulations to govern its members and trade practices. Thus, commercial crimes and cheating were almost unheard of in the Gupta period. Members of the guild had to abide by its rules and if the individual practiced two trades of skills, he could only belong to one guild. President and an executive committee of 4 or 5 members. Since they provided security to the artisans and traders and fostered industry through their banking activities, the Guptas encouraged the guilds and gave them a fair degree of autonomy. In time these guilds flourished, and they began patronizing temples, architecture, public works, etc.

According to various sources, the standard of living in the Gupta Empire was good as basic commodities were always available at affordable prices. The cities were the most prosperous and people enjoyed public amenities and cultural activities.

Society – The Gupta Age marked the revival of Brahmanical Hinduism. Thus, many social practices and institutions were based on Hinduism. The caste system continued and Brahmins enjoyed many privileges which were protected by the Guptas who themselves were Brahmins. Yet, social mobility did occur since people change their professions and even Shudras became traders. But the lowest castes of people could change their professions and even Shudras became traders. But the lowest castes of Untouchables faced tremendous discrimination and were forced to live outside villages and towns.

Women during this age were dependent on their families. They were married at early ages and did not have much to say in the choice of husband. Once married, she was restricted to the household duties. The practices of Sati and polygamy were increasingly popular especially among the upper castes. Widows were discouraged form remarrying. Education and training in the arts was given to girls from richer families but they were taught at home. Intermarriage between castes was permitted and interracial marriages were also frequent. The joint family system became stronger during this period but widows and daughters had no rights to property.

The diet of the people was vegetarian and non-vegetarian, though the Brahmins looked down upon meat eating. Pan chewing and foreign wines also became popular. Garments included dhoti-kurta for men, to which the Scythians added an overcoat. Women began to drape long pieces of cloth around them which developed into the sari. Jewelry was elaborate and popular with both men and women. Richer women also used cosmetics like kajal and perfumes and spent hours making elaborate hairstyles. Dice games and chess were popular pastimes while animal fights, drama, dancing and music provided environment.

Cultural developments

The Gupta Age was one of the most culturally productive eras of India. It saw tremendous growth in sculpture, architecture, painting, minting of coins and literature.

Sculpture – The Gandhara School of Art reached its peak during this age and a vast number of sculptures were created synthesizing elements from Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese and Indian styles. Buddhism and images of Buddha were the most common theme while the material for the sculptures was black stone. Later, this style of sculpture was also used for stone and metal work.

Architecture – Between the 1^st and 5^th centuries AD, a number of monasteries were built in the Gandhara style. They usually consisted of living quarters for the monks and a stupa. These were decorated with images of Buddha and stories from the Buddhist teachings.

Painting – Buddhism not only influenced sculpture and architecture, but also inspired the wall paintings of Ajanta caves. Monks leveled, plasteed and then painted ‘frescoes’ telling stories of human existence and Buddhism. These paintings that include animals, humans and floral designs were executed with natural dyes and colors which have remained fresh and vibrant through the centuries.

Coinage – Under the Guptas the technique of coinage became a fine art. The Guptas issued coins in gold, silver, and coper with a variety of designs. Chandragupta I issued coins featuring his Queen Kumaradevi’s name along with his. Samudragupta issued a large variety of coins being the title Vikramanka. In his military coins he is shown holding a bow and arrow, a battle axe or trampling a tiger. Other coins depict hism playing musical instruments like the veena, or performing the Ashwamedh sacrifice. Chandragupta II also issued many coins using the title of Vikramaditya. His silver coins used the same imprint as that used in the western satraps along with the Gupta symbol. He was shown killing a lion, holding a sword, etc. His gold coins are considered even more sophisticated in design and finish than the other Guptas. Besides the king, Gupta coins usually bore the image of a goddess on the other surface while Chandragupta II introduced the Garuda (vehicle of Vishnu), perhaps signifying the rise of Vaishnavite Hinduism.

Literature – The greatest development during the Gupta Age was in the field of literature. Sanskrit was the chief language. Education was also developing with Nalanda becoming a world famous center for scholars. The kings, especially Samudragupta and Chandragupta II patronized scholars and writers.

Harisena was an eminent poet and the biographer of Samudragupta. His poem engraved on the Allahabad Prashasti is the chief source of information on Samudragupta. Kalidas became the greatest writer of the age with timeless stories like Shakuntala, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, etc. Sudaraka was a famous dramatist while Upavarsha and Bandhayan were famous philosophers. Works on medical science, astronomy and law were also composed. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were famous astronomers. The Puranas were updated and the Smritis of Yanavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were also written. The accounts of foreign visitors like Fa Hien, the Chinese scholar who visited the court of Chandragupta II also added to the historical literature of the age.

The Gupta Age – the Golden Age

The Gupta Age has been referred to as the ‘Augustan Age in the history of India’, ‘the Classical Age’ or the ‘Golden Age of India’. Thus was the Gupta Age deserving of such praise. Some scholars agree while others do not.

Dr Vincent Smith – ‘The Gupta period was a time of exceptional intellectural activity in many fields’.

Dr Mehandale – ‘The political unity and prosperity of India under the Guptas combined with the staunch patronage that they extended to Sanskrit learning resulted in the flourishing of Sanskrit literature in all branches. It was that period that produced the best authors in almost all branches of literature, including the sciences like astronomy and mathematics’.

Dr. A. K. Majumdar – ‘A new chapter in the history of India begins with the Guptas. Sanskrit literature reached its peak of glory during this age. The contribution of the Gupta Age in the realm of art is also considered classical’.

Dr. Romila Thapar – ‘The Gupta age was classical only for the upper classes of society. The common man did not share in these luxuries’. – This view is also held by Subaltern historians like Ranjit Guha. According to him, life for the common man continued in the same way as before and none of the ‘glory’ of the Guptas affected their everyday life.