WORLD WAR II - Causes

WORLD WAR II

Causes 

1. Humiliating Treaty of Versailles – Germany was the most discontented and angry nation due to the imposition of the Treaty of Versailles on her. It was a dictated treaty that humiliated her. It was vindictive and unjust. By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost territories in Europe. Her overseas colonies were taken away and her military strength was reduced to minimal. Germany was blamed for the war and asked to pay a huge indemnity, which was beyond her capacity. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles created hatred among the Germans against the allied powers and she wanted to take revenge. Thus, the Treaty of Versailles contained in itself the seed of the Second World War.

 

2. Aggressive nationalism and Imperialism – formed an important factor in creating international tension and rivalry. England, France and other countries, which were talking about international peace and understanding, had big empires. Germany, Italy and Japan got ready for war and imperialist expansion, as they also wanted big empires and be on par with their rivals. Hitler, Mussolini and Tojo, by creating a strong spirit of aggressive nationalism and militant imperialism, paved the way for the Second World War.

 

3. Problem of National Minorities – The causes of the Second World War related to the failure of the peace terms of 1919-1920. By annexing territories from the defeated nations, the peacemakers sowed the seeds of bitterness and conflict. The population was dissatisfied, and this was exploited by dictators.

 

4. Failure of Democracy and rise of Dictatorship – Following the First World War, democratic governments were established in different European countries, especially Italy and Germany. However, these democratic governments failed to solve political, economic and social problems in their respective countries. The political instability and corruption among the politicians led to the collapse of democratic governments and led to the rise of dictatorship. The dictators created confidence and hope among the people and provided political stability. However, the rise of dictatorship proved to be dangerous to world peace.

 

5. Failure of the League of Nations – Another important cause of the Second World War was the miserable failure of the League of Nations in its primary duty of preventing the race for armaments and punishing nations, which committed acts of aggression. The league was dominated by the big imperialist powers who were selfish, unfair and corrupt.

 

6. Failure to achieve disarmament – Though Germany was disarmed after the First World War, the victorious allies never attempted to limit their own armaments. A number of attempts were made within and outside the League of Nations to arrive at some settlement regarding disarmament. Disarmament conferences were held at Washington and London at different times, but these did not produce any success. Hitler openly resorted to the rearmament of Germany in violation of the terms of the peace treaty. Other nations also resorted to armament race. The failure to achieve disarmament resulted in tension among the nations and naturally endangered world peace.

 

7. Two armed camps – The emergence of two armed camps in the world after 1937 greatly contributed to the outbreak of the Second World War. With the collapse of collective security under the League of Nations various countries became convinced that they should form their own arrangement for their security and national interest. The Fascist dictatorial powers who had withdrawn from the League of Nations, Italy, Germany and Japan formed the Rome Berlin-Tokyo axis. On the other hand England and France drew closer and cemented their alliance to face the possible threat of the Fascist powers. The existence of the two rival armed camps with differing ideologies and programs brought the world to the brink of war.

 

8. Immediate cause – Invasion of Poland by Germany – The immediate cause of the Second World War was the invasion of Poland by Germany. When Poland refused to concede German demands she was attacked by the German troops on 1st September 1939. The German invasion of Poland drew England and France into the conflict on 3rd September 1939, as both these countries had guaranteed the territorial integrity of Poland. Thus, began the Second World War.

 

World War I Consequences/Results

The world war had far reaching consequences on the subsequent history of Europe in particular and the world in general. It produced disastrous consequences in the field of politics, economy and society. The chief results of the world war are as follows:

Destruction of human life and property: The First World War caused immeasurable destruction. Nearly ten million soldiers died as a result of war – far more than had died in all the wars during the previous years. About 21 million men were wounded. No one knows how many people died of disease, starvation and other war related diseases.

Property was damaged. Armies destroyed farms and villages as they passed through them. The war resulted in destruction of factories, bridges and railroad tracks. Artillery shells, trenches and chemicals made the land barren along the western front. Wars shattered the economies of many countries.

Change in world map – The war and the subsequent peace treaties altered the political map of the world particularly Europe. The ruling dynasties perished. The end of the war saw the fall of the Ottoman Empire, the emergence of Austria Hungary as independent states, and the rise of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Poland as independent states.

End of European Supremacy and rise of USA as a superpower – After the war England and France lost their supremacy in the world. United States emerged as a great economic and military power. The success of the Bolshevik Revolution during the war period saw the rise of the Soviet Union as a major world power.

Freedom movements in Asia and Africa – The First World War encouraged the people of Asia and Africa, struggling under European imperialism. In many of the Asian countries such as India, national movements were already in progress. The participation of Asian and African soldiers in the battles helped in arousing the people of Asia and Africa to fight for their freedom.

 

Failure of peace treaties – The peace treaties contained harsh and unjust provisions, which did not help in bringing about peace, but sowed the seeds of future conflicts. The rise of Nazism in Germany can be attributed to this to a large extent. Similarly victorious countries also felt cheated because all their hopes had not been fulfilled.

Birth of League of Nations – The League of Nations was an international organization, which aimed at the preservation of peace and security, peaceful settlement of international conflicts, and bound its members ‘not to resort to war’. Though all the objectives could not be achieved, the league marked the beginning of peace movements in the twentieth century.

WORLD WAR I

A great war or a great revolution cannot begin suddenly. Neither of them begins due to one cause. It is the result of many causes. All these causes are closely connected with one another. So was the case with World War I.

Causes

Nationalism – An important cause of the war was nationalism. Nationalism began in the 14th and 15th centuries. In the beginning the movement of nationalism was not harmful. Its aim was the boundaries of nationalities and the boundaries of state should be the same. The congress of Vienna did not care for the feeling of nationalism. So there were national risings in many countries of Europe. The people there wanted the right of self – determinism. By the end of the 19th century, nationalism took a new shape. It became aggressive. All the nations began to give importance to themselves. Their patriotism became intolerant. The people of one country began to be hated by those of the other. This hatred was responsible for the war.

Imperialism – The countries of the west wanted to expand their colonies to get raw materials for their industries as well as markets for their finished goods. The race for colonies in Asia and Africa led to rivalries among nations. For e.g. England and France had the largest number of colonies.

Armaments – Some of the countries of Europe had entered into rivalry for colonies. As a result they had to prepare themselves to fight against others. So the great powers of Europe prepared themselves for war. Huge sums of money began to be spent on armaments and army. Countries thus prepared for war do not make concessions to others. The keenest rivalry was between Germany and France. The armament makers made good money, so they fanned the flame of rivalry. Thus, the period from 1870-1913 was a period of ‘armed peace’. In such a period there could be no hope of security. Even a very slight cause was enough to plunge the world into war.

Secret diplomacy – Secret diplomacy was also a cause of the war. Germany, Austria and Italy had formed the triple Alliance. England, France and Russia had formed the triple Entente. Thus, Europe was divided into two ‘armed camps’. These camps grew suspicious of each other.

Other causes – There were also many other causes of the war. There were 4 important international events. Two of these happened in Morocco between Germany and France. The other two happened in the Balkan region between Russia and Austria Hungary. Fortunately none of these happenings led to war. But they did increase the tension among the nations.

Immediate cause – Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in Sarajevo in Bosnia. The suspects were Serbs, so Austria held Serbia responsible for the murder. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia. She wanted Serbia to accept the ultimatum within forty-eight hours.

The break out of the war – Serbia accepted many demands of Austria. England, France and Russia tried to induce Austria. Their efforts proved useless. Austria did not feel satisfied. On July 8, 1914, Austria declared war upon Serbia. Soon the flames of war spread far and wide. It assumed the form of a world war. The war came to an end on November 11, 1918, when an armistice was concluded. It was followed by the Paris Peace Conference.

CULTURE AND CULTURAL STUDIES

What is culture?

There is a general agreement that culture is learnt, that it allows man to adapt himself to natural and social setting, that it is greatly variable, that it is manifested in institutions, thought patterns and material objects. One of the best early definition was given by E.B. Tylor who described culture as ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morale, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’.

Culture is universal in man’s experience, yet each local or regional manifestation of it is unique. Culture is stable, yet it is also dynamic. Culture fills and determines the course of our lives, yet rarely intrudes into conscious thought.

Some of the main features of culture are as follows:

• Culture is learnt behavior as opposed to the natural one. It is acquired behavior which one learns by virtue of being a member of society.
• Culture is social, not an individual heritage of man. Culture refers to the ways common to all the members of a group.
• Culture differs from society to society and thus it is unique.
• Culture provides members of a group an identity, it creates a sense of belongingness. It gives one a sense of pride.
• Culture is a social heritage of man. This implies that culture is inevitably linked with the past.
• Human beings are continuously refining and polishing their behavior of action and thought. Culture is therefore the embodiment of refinement.
• Culture tends to be patterned as it involves similar approved behavior. E.g. religious practices and customs of a particular group.
• Culture is integrated as it has values and goals which give a sense of unity.
• Culture can be institutionalized and can exist and represent itself in a set of institutions. E.g. the institution of marriage or family.
• Culture is super-organic. People and societies may cease to exist but culture continues to survive.
• Culture is symbolic. It has a range of symbols which are both material and non-material. E.g. Indian woment wear a ‘mangalsutra’ and ‘sindoor’ which indicates that they are married.
• Culture has the ability to innovate, and this is seen through evolution of different forms of music, dance, etc.

Culture is not innate. Traits learnt through civilization, habits and thoughts are what is called culture. Culture is communicated from one generation to the next. Every individual takes part in the transmission and communication of culture but culture is social rather than individual. Man cannot create or generate while existing apart from the group. Culture fulfils those ethical and social needs which are ends in themselves.

Culture emphasise the human component of accumulated resources, immaterial as well as material which the people inherit, employ, transmute, add to structure and cultural pattern cannot exist independently of one another in human society. Society and culture are mutually dependant and social relations are carried or exemplified only in cultural behavior.

Radcliff Brown talked of culture as ‘the process by which a person acquires from contact with other persons or from such things as books or works of art, knowledge, skill, ideas, beliefs, tastes, sentiments’.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CULTURE

According to George Peter Murdock, culture has the following characteristics:

• The Learned Quality – Man is not born with culture hence it is a learned process and man moulds himself according to his environment
• The transmitted quality – Culture is transmitted from person to person. The individual is moulded according to his family and society of which he is a member.
• The social quality – Each society has culture. Each member of the society is depended on the other and each expects from the other, this expectation binds the society.
• The quality of Idealism – Culture is based on some ideals and each generation acquires it from its predecessors and each member has to follow it.
• Gratifying quality – Man as a member of the society has various needs and these needs are satisfied by the culture.
• The adapted and integrated quality – Each culture tries to adopt the qualities from outside its own environment. The contact of two or more cultures takes place and this interaction lends the adaptive quality to the culture. The different aspects of culture join hands to form a whole integrated culture.
• Culture is always idealized – Human beings are continuously refining and polishing their behavior, action and thought, culture stands for ideals and norms of human behavior.
• Culture meets the recurring demands of mankind – Culture meets the various recurring demands of mankind e.g. Demand of reproduction, nursing an infant to maturity, marriage and finally disposal of the dead, all these demands are met by culture from generation to generation. Culture points out the smooth way to meet the perpetual demands of individuals.

CULTURAL STUDIES

Man in order to live must eat – Karl Marx

Diversity is the unique feature of the human community. E.g. In the case of transportation Arabs use camels as it is easy to cross the sandy desert. In the case of Eskimos they use sledges pulled by huskies. Infrastructure may be different, but the purpose is the same i.e. transportation.

Culture is the way you adapt yourself in a society / natural environment. Anthropology is the study of human adaptation in their natural environment.

Culture studies focuses on particular aspects of culture not only on the whole range of culture i.e. pop culture or folk culture reflected in the lives and interests and behavior patterns of the masses of people like entertainment, folk arts, folk theatre, folklore which means a distinction is drawn between high culture and popular culture. Culture studies emphasizes that culture should be seen, examined and analyzed in relation to social structure and when we speak of social structure we also speak of relation of power. Culture becomes a field where the dominance of one group over the other is reflected. The dominant groups try to impose their ideology on the small group and this dominance of the major group takes place in keeping with the political, economic and ideological interests over the minority. So culture becomes associated with area of contests and consensus.

CREOLIZATION

As a result of colonization there was a mixture between people of indigenous, African, and European descent, which came to be understood as Creolization. The mixing of people brought a cultural mixing which ultimately led to the formation of new identities.

It is important to emphasize that Creolization also is the mixing of the "old" and "traditional," with the "new" and "modern." Furthermore, creolization occurs when participants actively select cultural elements that may become part of or inherited culture. 

Robin Cohen states that Creolization is a condition in which "the formation of new identities and inherited culture evolve to become different from those they possessed in the original cultures," and then creatively merge these to create new varieties that supersede the prior forms.

The idea of ‘Creole continnum’ refers to a series of overlapping language usuages and code switching. Creolization stresses that although cultureal imperialism has taken place, it does not necessarily obliterate, pre-existing cultural froms. The ideologiacal competition between them can result in a range of hybrid forms of identity as well as the production of traditional / nationalist identities.

There are different processes of creolization have shaped and reshaped the different forms of one culture. For example, food, music, and religion have been impacted by the creolization of today's world.

DIFFUSIONISM

Diffusionism is the term used by anthropologists and sociologists to account for the spread, through time, of artistic culture, traditions, language, music, myths, religious beliefs, social organization, and technological developments from one society or group to another.

In simple terms Diffusionism means transformation of culture (change) and evolution of society.

Diffusionism is a school of thought which uses the comparative method to explain why different societies are at different levels in terms of their development. It maintains that societal change takes place when societies borrow cultural traits from one another. It is the process of change whereby cultures meet and interact with one another and thus elements and traits are borrowed and get diffused.

Historically there have been two broad approaches to Diffusion:

1. Extreme Diffusionists – were a British group who believed that civilization has originated only once in human history in Ancient Egypt. All aspects of civilization, ranging from technology to religion, spread to other parts of the world from there.
2. Historical Diffusionists – maintained that civilization originated in the Middle Eastern areas like Syria, Iraq and Persia where there was more literacy and then spread to other parts of the world.

Various cultural thinkers contributed to the concept of Diffusionism. One such cultural thinker was Alfred L. Kroeber. According to him, diffusion is a process by which cultural material spreads. The diffused cultural material contains specific elements by which diffusion can be recognized. He put forward the concept of ‘idea transmission’ or ‘stimulus transmission’. He extended the concept of diffusion to independent inventions or growths. For e.g., porcelain making in Europe developed due to conscious experiments performed in order to reproduce the porcelain imported from China. Another example is the Chinese discovery of tones in their languages which are probably due to the exposure to Buddhists who took Sanskrit with them when they travelled to China in order to propagate their religion (Buddhism) there.

Thus through Diffusionism, a broad idea is passed on from one culture to another, but the receiving culture or civilization only internalizes those pieces of the original idea which are suitable for them.

DIFFUSIONISM AND MEDIA

Diffusion theory provides:

• A framework that helps understand why media literacy is adopted by some individuals and not by others.
• Media literacy supporters can use diffusion theory to explain, predict and account for factors that increase or impede the diffusion of innovations.
• A closer look at the communication channels used to spread the word about media literacy, the time taken and explains what the society who adopts the ideas is like.
• Help in introducing new ideas into the social system including new hardware and software components.

Thus transmission takes place in 5 stages

1. Awareness of innovations especially through mass media
2. Adoption by a group of innovators
3. Acceptance by opinion leaders who try the innovations themselves
4. Spread the ideas from opinion leaders to their followers
5. Change now only those who have adopted the innovations but more people begin to adopt successful innovations.

RESOURCES

NATURAL RESOURCES are of two kinds:

RENEWABLE RESOURCES: are those which are inexhaustive and can be regenerated within a given span of time. For e.g. Forests, wild life, wind energy, hydropower, solar energy etc.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES: are resources which cannot be regenerated. For e.g. Fossil fuels like coal petroleum, minerals, etc. Once these reserves are exhausted they cannot be replenished.

Resources can also be classified

1.      On the basis of utility

a.       Renewable Resources

b.      Non Renewable Resources

2.       On the basis of Origin

a.       Biotic Resources – Obtained from the biosphere (Organic Resources) e.g. Forest products

b.      Abiotic Resources – Non living matter (Inorganic Resources) e.g. Land, Water Etc.

A resource can be useful only when it can be converted or utilized to generate wealth which could be of economical or ecological importance. The process of converting resources to wealth is very critical and must be handled with caution by the government and other decision making organizations as the amount of economy generated by converting the resources to wealth should not harm the environment or the damage should be minimal and reversible.

Development leads to pollution and thus sustainability is threatened. Exploitation of natural resources in a sustainable manner involves:

Sustainability: To avoid depletion of resources we must only harvest their production surplus.

Biodiversity: In order to maintain global biodiversity all species must be protected against extinction or decimation.

Integration: all species belong to an ecosystem and are integrated into a complex web of interaction and should therefore be managed as a unit.

It is important to keep in mind the following:

-          Ecological regeneration of resources is the basis of long term resource availability and higher productivity.

-          Future socio-economic development depends on the proper conservation of resources and finding alternative eco-friendly energy resources.

-          Unexplored land including no man’s land should not be neglected and must be treated as resource reservoirs.

Identification of resources, its management and utilization and further conversion of resource to wealth leads to a successful economic and ecological balance.