CONCEPT OF ASHOKAS DHAMMA

ASHOKAS DHAMMA

After the Kalinga War, the greatest ideal and objective before Ashoka was the propagation of Dhamma for the fulfillment of which he worked relentlessly. The Dhamma as explained in Ashoka’s edicts is not a religion or religious system, but a ‘Moral Law’, ‘a common code of conduct’ or an ‘Ethical Order’, which is a common meeting ground of all religions.

Ashoka explaining what is dhamma, enumerates two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma: less evils or sins (ap ansinave) and many good deeds (bahu Kayane). He enumerates the Asinavas or sin, such as rage or fury, cruelty, anger, pride and envy, which are to be avoided and many good deeds (bahu kayane) - kindness, liberality, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity etc., - which are to be pursued vigourously. The two attributes constitute the ‘Doctrinal’ or negative and positive aspects of Ashokas dhamma.

The Code of Duties / Practical Dhamma

1. Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers and other respectful persons.

2. Respect towards teachers

3. Proper treatment towards ascetics, both Brahmanas and Sramanas, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances and companions.

4. Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged.

5. Abstention from killing of living beings.

6. Non injury to all living creatures.

7. Moderation in spending and saving.

8. Mildness in case of all living creatures.

9. Truthfulness

10. Purity of heart.

The Dhamma of Edicts is not merely a guide to action. It is distinguished by several characteristic doctrines and philosophical positions, bringing out the originality of Ashoka’s ideas of moral reform. Toleration was insisted on as an absolute duty in a multi religious country like India. Ashoka tried to instill moral law (Dhamma) as the governing principle and force in every sphere of life and to spiritualize politics and all human activities. The Dhamma thus presented in these Edicts is but another name for the moral or virtuous life and takes its stand upon the common meeting ground of all religions. It is not sectarian in any sense, but is completely cosmopolitan, capable of universal application and acceptance as essence of all religions. Thus, he laid the basis of a universal religion and was probably the first to do so in history.

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka considered the Dhamma Vijaya, the victory based on piety and morality, as the real victory. In Pillar Edict I, he sums up his intentions by saying that he wants the maintenance, governance, happiness and protection of the people to be regulated by Dhamma. He further stressed the paternal concept of monarchy ‘All men are my children, and just as I desire for my children that they obtain welfare and happiness, both in this world and the next, so do I desire the same for all men’.

Ashoka’s dhamma was intended to strengthen social solidarity or social relationships, whether between parents and children, elders and young friends or various ideological sects. It was included as an ethical concept related to the individual in the context of his society.

Measures for the propagation of Dhamma

Ashoka took a number of measures for the propagation of Dhamma throughout his Empire. He adopted the doctrines of Dhamma as a governing principle of his personal life and public policies. Some of the significant measures were:

1. Issue of Dhamma lipis and Dhamma stambhas respectively in the form of Rock and Pillar Edicts describing the attributes of Dhamma

2. Appointment of Dhamma mahamatras.

3. Dhamma – Yatras, royal tours for the propagation of Dhamma.

4. Dhamma-mangala public welfare activities in accordance with the spirit of Dhamma.

5. Preaching of Dhamma by regulations and persuasions.

6. Administrative measures suited to the principles of Dhamma.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE PALLAVAS IN THE FIELD OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 Discuss the contribution of the Pallavas in the field of art and architecture.

The history of architecture and sculpture in South India begins with the Pallava temples which introduce a new technique called the Dravidian style. In addition to the temples in Kanchi and other places, ‘some of the rock-cut temples known as the seven pagodas or rathas of Mamallapurama are built in this style which may justly be called the Pallava style of art’. In fact, Pallava contribution to Indian culture is unique. Undoubtedly their edifices are among the noblest monuments in South India. From an early date they created an architecture of their own which was to be the basis of all the styles of the South. The cave and structural temples and other architectural remains of the Pallavas form an important chapter in Hindu art. The Pallava architecture has two phases:

1. Rockcut architecture from 610-690; it includes mandapas or rathas (monolithic temples)

2. Structural from 690-900; it includes temples.

 

A mandapa is an open pavilion, a hall with cells in the back wall. It is excavated in a rock. A ratha is a monolithic shrine. Many of the architectural productions of the Pallavas have a figure of a lion on the prominent place. This heraldic beast was made to serve as a symbol of the Pallava Simhavishnu or lion (simha) ancestry.

The twon of Mahavallipuram or Mamallapuram, 32 miles south of Madras, founded by the great Pallava King Narasimhavarman (625-645) on the sea-beach, has many cave-temples or mandapas decorated with fine reliefs. The mandapas are 10 in number and are found on the hill. They are remarkable not for their size but for the exceptional character of their design and execution. The pillars, the façade and the sculpture combined with the architecture are the salient features of these mandapas. The pillar is made to rest on the sedent animal’s head and it has fluted and banded shaft, refined necking, the elegant curves, and lotus form with wide abacus. The relief work and architectural features are designed and executed in admirable way.

The monolithic temples called rathas, known as, ‘seven pagodas’ are another type of remarkable rock cut architecture at Mamallapuram. They are named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi, each carved out from a single massive granite stone upon the seashore. They are complete with all the details of an ordinary temple and stand today as undying testimony to the super quality of Pallava art. These rathas are of no great size, the largest measuring only 42 feet long, the widest 35 feet and the tallest 40 feet high. They number eight in all with the exception of Draupadi’s ratha which is the smallest, simplest and most finished, others are derived from the Buddhist structure of a Vihara or a monastery and Chaitya Hall or temple. The Dharmaraja ratha is the largest. The Bhima ratha with its three upper stories is the finest and most interesting of the group. The Ganesh ratha has architectural form known in later Dravidian architecture as Gopuram – the gateway. The significant point to note here is that ‘these rathas formed the originals from which all the vimanas in South India were copied and continued to be copied nearly unchanged to a very late period’ (Gokhale). These monolithic shrines or rathas were of Saivism as in their proximity are images carved in rock, of a lion, an elephant and a bull, symbolizing respectively Durga, Indra and Shiva. Probably each ratha was a shrine consecrated to one of the manifestations of Shiva.

These mandapas and rathas are adorned with marvellous figure sculpture. The Pallava sculpture here reveals a finer feeling for form, experience craftsmanship, a noteable sense of restraint and a refined simplicity. Among the sculptures, one large composition on rock has obtained great celebrity. It is cut down from one standing soldi rock 98 feet long and 43 feet wide. The scene represented is usually described as the penance of Arjun, but now it is held by art critics and scholars that it represents the Descent of the Ganges. Towards the end of the 7^th century the art of excavated ratha or mandapa was given up and the second phase of the Pallava art, the art of structural edifices, was taken up and it occupied the whole of the 8^th century. Splendid temples were constructed; their lofty towers were built tier upon tier, diminishing in size towards a summit, typifying all the wealth, munificence and grandeur of the Pallavas. The most wonderful example of the Pallava structural art is the famous Kailasa temple at Kanchi. There the shrine with its sikhara or pyramidal tower and flat roofed mandapam is surrounded by a series of cells, resembling rathas. The temple of Vaikuntha Perumal at Canjeevaram is another marvelous example of the art. Here the Pallava style of architecture is seen in its most mature form. It is larger and more spacious that the afore-stated Kailash temple. Here the principle parts, the cloisters, portico and sanctuary, instead of being separate buildings, are amalgamated into one architectural whole. This has produced a unity of conception and considerable architectural merit. To sum up, the Pallava art evolved splendid huge temples of stone. Sometimes the upper part was made of bricks. Above the main shrine pyramidal tower was constructed.

The style of Pallava architecture not only set the standard in the South but also largely influenced the architecture of the Indian colonies in the Far East. The Pallava art was transmitted beyond the seas to the countries of south east Asia like Indonesia ‘where its effulgence, reflected in the vast monuments of those civilizations, shone with even greater splendor than in the country of its origin’ (Percy Brown). The schools of sculpture which developed out of the Pallava art in Java and Cambodia displayed the high artistic character and the superb quality of the Pallava plastic art. The Khmer sculptures at Angkor Thom and Angkor Vat and the bas-reliefs on the stupa temple of Borobudur owe some of their characteristics to the rock cut monoliths of Mamallapuram. The characteristic Pallava or Dravidian type of shikara is met with the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam. But there are important differences between them and the South Indian temples. The pillars that form an important adjunct to the latter are altogether absent in the former. Credit goes to the Pallavas for having kept burning brightly the torch, which kindled by the Buddhist in the early centuries of the Christian era at Amaravati, was bequeathed to these Simha Vishnu ‘lion’ kings, Pallvas. Later on its flame glowed with renewed brilliance in the hands of the Chola and subsequent rulers of Southern India.  

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES | ANCIENT INDIA

Assess the importance of archaeological sources for the study of social and economic history of India.

Sources are divided into archaeological and literary.

Archaeological sources include inscriptions, monuments, coins and other antiquities.

Literary sources include contemporary works written by court historians, autobiographies, surveys and accounts of the empire, court bulletins and newspapers, religious, literary and foreign accounts.

Archaeological sources

Archaeology derives its name from the Greek words, ‘archaious’ meaning ‘ancient’ and ‘logos’ meaning ‘knowledge’. Archaeology means ‘the science of ancient things’ or ‘ a branch of knowledge dealing with the remains of ancient human activity’.

The late Rai Bahadur K. N. Dikshit aptly says that archaeology is a handmaid to history, and this handmaid is thoroughly faithful and can be relied upon to bear the torch correctly to the dim recesses of long forgotten passages of history.

As archaeology means the systematic study of antiquities and the weaving of the earliest history of nations and peoples from the remains of buildings, burial places, implements and monuments, belonging to periods of which we have few or no written records, its importance as a valuable source is great.

The archaeologists have brought to life a great number of inscriptions of antiquity which were recorded on rocks and pillars. However, these inscriptions could not be read due to the ignorance of the script in which these inscriptions were written. But the mystery was solved by James Princep in 1837, by his discovery of the Brahmi script. Princep’s discovery inaugurated a new age in the research of India’s great historical antiquity. A number of scholars like Ferguson, Cunningham, Dr. Bhau Daji and Dr. Rajendra Lal Mitra made great contributions to the understanding of different branches of Indology.

Extensive excavations were carried out laying bare the remains of two great cities of what is known as the Indus Valley Civilization or Harappan Culture, the first urban civilization of the Indo-Pak subcontinent. The find of a few seals of this civilization at some sites in Iraq helped in dating the civilization to the later centuries of the third millennium B.C. The discoveries evoked great interest and extensive explorations were undertaken in Sind and Baluchistan. Many other sites of the Harappa Culture, together with other proto-historic sites, variously contemporary with or earlier or later than the Harappa were discovered.

Archaeological material which can be used for the reconstruction of history may be broadly classified under the following heads: inscriptions, numismatics and monuments.

Inscriptions – Ancient people used to inscribe writings on tombs, temples, stupas, palaces, houses, walls, rocks, slabs, bricks, earthenware pots, plates, precious and semi precious stones, sculptures, metals, metallic objects, etc.

The historians of ancient India attach highest value to inscriptions as they are the most important to the studies auxiliary to literature. They are authentic as most of them are engraved on stone and metal and are thus free from the process of tampering to which books or other documents written on perishable materials are liable. Although not always dated, the character of the script enables us to determine their approximate age. Thus we can be sure while using the material from inscriptions that they contain what was originally written. While in the case of books, there is a possibility of interpolations by known and unknown authors, that is not the case with the inscriptions. Their genuineness cannot be doubted.  

By analysing the contents of the inscriptions, they can be grouped under the following heads: commercial, magical, religious and didactic, administrative, eulogistic, votive, or dedicative, donative, commemorative and literary.

Commercial inscriptions – As regards commercial inscriptions, their specimens are to be found on the seals of the Indus Valley. Some of these seals must have been used for the stamping of bales of merchandise, commodities like pottery, etc. These seals may have been used by sea-faring people engaged in foreign trade. It seems that Nigamas and Srenis, which were commercial organisations had the power of minting their coins and they must have possessed seals to be used for commercial purposes. Their record on perishable materials must have disappeared. However, there are references to the use of seals for commercial purposes in other inscriptions such as the Mandasore stone inscriptions of the time of Kumaragupta and Bandhuvarman.

Magical inscriptions – Examples of magical inscriptions are found in the Indus Valley Seals which were used as amulets. These seals contained magical formulae on them. The seals have not been deciphered as yet and it is difficult to know their contents. However, they are very likely to contain the names of deities which are represented by the animals. The animals represented on the amulets are the antelope, buffalo, Brahmi Bull, composite animal, elephant, goat, hare, human figure, monkey, rhinoceros, short horned bull and tiger. Some of the deities represented by them are the moon, Yama, Siva, Indra, Brahma and Durga.

Religious and didactic inscriptions – Religious and didactic inscriptions deal with religious and moral matters. Possibly, some of the Indus Valley seals and tablets were objects of worship and were not used as amulets. The inscriptions of Ashoka are the best examples of the religious and didactic inscriptions. The edicts of Ashoka are appropriately called Dhamma-Lipi.

Administrative inscriptions – The inscriptions of Ashoka, engraved on rocks and pillars were found throughout his vast empire, from beyond the Indus int eh West to the Mysore Plateau in the South. These are royal proclamations and commandments mostly in his own words, and convey across 22 centuries the life and personality fo a great man and a great ruler with a striking vividness to which there is hardly any parallel  in the history of the world. The inscriptions of Ashoka form a class by themselves and contribute largely to our knowledge of the history of the period.

Eulogistic inscriptions – From the political point of view the eulogistic inscriptions (prasatis) are very important. Generally, they contain the name and genealogy of the ruler concerned. They also include the earlier career of the King, his military, political and administrative achievements, the existence of contemporary states coming into conflict with him and the inter state relations, the administrative system, the political ideals, the personal accomplishments of the king, his patronage, munificence and charity and mythological or puranic allusions by way of comparison and similes. One of the difficulties in these inscriptions is that there is a tendency on the part of the authors to exaggerate the achievements of their patrons.

Eulogistic inscriptions can be subdivided into two part – pure eulogy and eulogy mixed with other types. The edicts of Ashoka form a category by themselves. The Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela of Kalinga belongs to the category of pure eulogy. It describes in detail the achievements of King Kharavela in a chronological order. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription of Samudragupta describes in great detail the personal qualities and military achievements of the great Gupta emperor and forms the chief document of his memorable reign. The Gwalior Prasasti of King Bhoja similarly throws light on the imperial Pratiharas, another forgotten dynasty of ancient India.

The number of inscriptions which contain eulogy mixed with other matter is very large. In practically every document of a permanent nature, reference is made to the glories of the ruling sovereign and his ancestors.

Votive or dedicative inscriptions – There are a large number of votive or dedicative inscriptions. It is possible that some of the tablets found in the Indus Valley contain votive inscriptions. Many of the dedicative inscriptions deal with the installation of images and the construction of temples.

Donative inscriptions – There are many donative inscriptions. Some such inscriptions refer to the donations of caves or other buildings for the residence of monks and ascetics. Some refer to the donation of money in the form of a permanent endowment. Out of these funds, the Brahamanas and the needy were fed, lamps were lighted in the temples, etc. In some inscriptions, there is a reference to the donation of lands and villages to the monasteries, educational institutions and the Brahmanas.

Commemorative inscriptions – Inscriptions of commemorative nature record such events as birth, death or other important events.

Literary inscriptions – A number of inscriptions have proved to be of great value for the reconstruction of the literary history of India. They help to determine the date of the poets and to trace the development of literature.

Inscriptions are found engraved on all sorts of material, but more commonly on metals and stones. Among the metals, copper was the material which was commonly used for the writing of inscriptions. An inscription copper plated was called Tamrapata, Tamrapatta, Tamrassana, Sasanapattra or Danapattra according to its contents. It is remarkable to note that land grants were invariably inscribed on copper plates and were handed over to the donee so that they may serve as title deeds. Fa-Hein tells us that he found in many Buddhist monasteries copper plates which referred to the grants of land. Some of them were as old as the time of Buddha.  

Copper plates were of different sizes and thickness. Some of them were so thin that they could be bent easily and there were others which were very thick and heavy. The size of a copper plate depended upon the contents of the document and the size of the commonly used writing material in the area where the copper plate was used.

Besides copper, instances of inscriptions on gold leaf or silver scrolls are known. Bronze and brass are more in evidence in the shape of plates, images and utensils. Iron was also used as material for inscriptions but on a modest scale. An important example is the famous iron pillar at Meharauli near Delhi.

The stone inscription include rock – surface, walls of artificial or natural caves, pavements, pillars, slabs, statutes and reliquaries. Besides, bricks, earthenware, clay tablets, terracotta plaques, wood, shells, crystal and even ivory were used as materials for inscriptions.

The various inscriptions are found in the languages current at different periods and localities – Sanskrit, Pali, mixed dialects, or the languages of Southern India such as Tamil, Telugu, Malayam and Kannada. Some of them are of considerable literary merit, being either in prose or verse or a combination of the two. The majority of the inscriptions are in the Bramhi script, written from left to right. But a good number are also inscribed in the Kharosti script running like Arabic and Persian, from right to left.

Numismatics

The importance of numismatics for the study of political, religious and economic history of India is very great. Coins help us to build up the history of the country in many ways. They give us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. In many cases, the coins are the only information we have regarding the existence of certain kings. Without those coins, the very existence of those kings would have remained unknown. Many a times, the information from the coins can be used to corroborate the evidence from other sources such as the Puranas, etc. The coins also help us to fix up the chronology. The location of coins helps us to determine the extent of the territory of the king. The discovery of a large number of roman coins in India confirms the fact that there was a brisk trade between India and the Roman Empire. That also refers to the economic prosperity of India.

Gold was probably used as money during and before the time of Buddha but no gold coins have been found. The earliest coinage of India so far known are in silver and copper. They are called punch marked and cast coins because of the techniques employed in making them. They are uninscribed and therefore it is difficult to identify the names of their issuers. Punch marked coins are metallic pieces, more or less rectangular in shape, with symbols punched thereon. The cast coins, usually of copper and used along with the punch marked currency, were made from moulds.

After the Greek invasion of India, the practice of writing the names of the Kings on the coins was started.

The coins have also been a chief source of our information regarding the various Indian states, both monarchial and republics that flourished during the same period. Coins are good materials for our knowledge of constitutional and administrative history of ancient India. Coinage is also an important source of art history and iconography. Early Indian coins that contain either a combination of symbols or human or animal figures and symbols, often present the earliest form of a particular deity.

The issue of coins is naturally associated with the country’s economy. Accordingly, the role of coins in the reconstruction of economic history is obvious. The earliest of the punch marked coins are usually dated around fifth century B.C. These types of punch marked coins which were found in abundance over the whole of the Indo – Pakistan subcontinent are believed to have been issued by the Mauryas. They must have controlled trade routes converging in Afghanistan and commanded a favorable foreign trade. The import of big quantities of Roman gold into India and favorable trade balance led to the issue of gold coins by the Kushanas and later by the Guptas. Pliny’s lament on the drainage of Roman gold to India was well founded.

The legend the effigy on the coins aid the historian to reconstruct the religious history of the period. They serve as additional testimony to the evidence we get from the inscriptions.

Monuments

In addition to inscripitons and numismatics, monuments such as buildings or parts there of, statues of stone or metal, terracotta, ornamental and decorative fragments, pottery and various other objects of a miscellaneous character are of great importance in tracing the history and evolution of Indian art. In addition to individual monuments, sometimes we have the vast remains of an ancient city laid before us. Some of them, like Mohenjodaro and Harappa, have opened before us an altogether new type of civilization, reaching back to an age of which no memorial in India were known before.

Expert examination of buildings, monuments and works of art has greatly enriched our knowledge of Indo-Aryan culture. Stupas, temples and other religious buildings help us to trace the development of religious thought.

In India, numerous buildings, buddhist, Jain, brahamanical and secular offer a fascinating study. They are rich store houses of information for the story of Indina religion, art and society. The digging of the old sites of Pataliputra gives us some information regarding the old capital of the Mauryas. The excavation of Taxila throw light on the History of the Kushanas. A study of the sculptures found they give us an idea of the Gandhara School of Art. The excavations at Sarnath have added to our knowledge regarding Buddhism and Ashok. The excavations in Chinese, Turkestan and Baluchistan by Stein prove the close contacts of India with those countries.

It is a commonplace knowledge that the art of a country reflects to a fair extent its culture and thus provides a key to the proper understanding of some higher aspects of its civilization. The sculptural panels sometimes enable us to know something of the social life of the community.

 

 

 

 

LITERARY SOURCES | ANCIENT INDIA

How do indigenous literary sources help in the study of social and economic history of ancient India? Illustrate with examples.

Examine the literary sources for the study of socio-economic history of ancient India.

Discuss the importance of literary sources in the study of the social and economic history of ancient India.

Critically examine the importance of foreign literary sources for the study of the social and economic history of ancient India.

 

Sources are divided into archaeological and literary sources.

Archaeological sources include inscriptions, monuments, coins and other antiquitites.

Literary sources include contemporary works written by court historians, autobiographies, surveys and accounts of the empire, court bulletins and newspapers, religious, literary and foreign accounts.

The earliest literature of India is purely of a religious kind. However, the scholars through their patience and hardwork could succeed in extraction from it useful bits of historical information. As regards the sacred literature, reference may be made to the Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda and Atharvaved. Out of the four vedas, the Rigveda is the most ancient and gives a lot of information regarding the history and the political system of the Aryans. It also gives us historical information relating to the progress of the Aryans in India their internal divisions and wars with the ‘Dasyas’. The Brahmanas are a prose commentary on the Sahitas or the Vedic hymns. The Aryankas and the Upanishads contain the philosophical meditations of the learned sages on god, the soul and the world. They give us a picture of the religious thought of the Aryans. Besides there are six vegangas which were intended to help the understanding of the Vedic text. In course of time special schools of thought came into existence for a systematic study of the various branches of Vedic knowledge. Those schools evolved special texts of their own known as Sutras. The Kalpasutras are manuals on rituals and there are four divisions of them. The Srautasutras deal with the rules relating to big sacrifices. The Grihyasutras deal with rules relating to domestic rights. The Dharmasutras deal with Dharma or Law. The Sulvasutras deal with the measurement and the building of places of sacrifice and fire altars.

The two great epics, the Ramayana and Mahabharata are the most famous books in Sanskrit next to the vedas. These epics contain what we may call the rudiments of history. Even the greatest critics do not deny the fact that the stories told in the epics may be magnified echoes of some historical events. The epics throw light on the political and social conditions of the people in their times. The Aryans had developed by then a large number of small kingdom along the banks of the Gangas and the Jamuna and their tributaries. The Aryans were warlike and were constantly forming alliances and waging wars. Though the power of the king was growing, big empires had not yet come into existence.

The Brahmasastras like the Smritis of Manu, Yajnavalkya, Vishnu, Brihaspati, Narada and others, also give us a lot of information about the Hindu society. They lay down the rules according to which the Hindus were required to conduct their lives. Punishments were also provided for the breach of those rules. According to Dr. Buhler the Manusmriti was composed between 200 BC and 200 AD. The other Smritis must have been written after that period.

The traditions preserved in ancient Indian literature notably the Puranas form the main source of information for the history of the earliest period and for the period before the 6^th century BC, they constitute our only source. According to Dr. Winternitz, the Puranas are valuable to the historians as a source of political history on account of their genealogies, even though they can only be used with great caution and careful discrimination. The Puranas, 18 in number, which are said to have been recited by the ’Suta’ Lomahsana or his son (Sauti), Ugrasravas. These Puranas throw light on all aspects and phrases of Hinduism.

The Poet Bana knew the Puranas very well and mentions that he attended a reading of the Vayu Purana in his native village. Kumarila Bhatla relies on the Puranas as a source of law. Shankara and Ramanuja referred to the Puranas as ancient and sacred texts. Al-Beruni was familiar with the Puranas came into being as early as the first century of the Christian era. There is a resemblance between the Buddhist Mahayana texts of the first century of the Christian era and the Puranas. All of the 18 Puranas are not equally important for historical purposes. As source material for History we depend largely on the Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana, Matsya Purana, Bramha Purana and Bhavishya Purana. Dr. V. A. Smith has shown that the Vishnu Purana is very reliable as regards to the Andhra and Saisunga dynasties. The Vayu Purana describes the rule of Guptas as it was under Chandragupta I.

The Puranas help us in rebuilding the History of Ancient Indian geography in which we come across the names of a number of cities which existed in their times. According to N. Mukhopadhyaya the Puranas form an important portion of the religious literature of the Hindus, and together with the Dharmashastras and Tantras, govern their conduct and regulate their religious observance at the present day. According tot Pradhan, ‘the puranas profess to give us the ancient history of India. In doing so they begin form the earliest Rigvedic period describing genealogies of Kings who established kingdoms and principalities and thus parcelled out and ruled ancient India’.

Inspite of their utility in reconstructing the history of ancient India, the Puranas contain certain serous shortcomings. History is mixed up with fables and folk lore. The legends int eh Puranas are religious and not historical. They sometimes treat contemporaneous dynasties or rulers as successive, or omit some of them entirely. The Puranas are silent about the Kushanas, Indo Greeks, Indo Parthians, etc. Dr. Altekar points out that in the dynastic lists, the Puranas themselves do not say that each successor in the list was a son or relative of his predecessor. No dates are given and even names of kings are often inaccurate.

The Buddhist Literature give a lot of information regarding the period which immediately preceded the accession of Bimbisara. It throws light on many topics which are not dealt with by the Brahmanical writers. The Buddhist literature is found in two languages – Pali and Sanskrit. The Pali Buddhist Literature is divided into three Pitakas – The Vinaya Pitaka, the Sutta Pitaka and the Abhidamma Pitaka. Besides the religious literature of the Buddhists, there is a mass of non religious literature. The most important among these is the ‘Milinda Panha’ (Questions of King Milinda). It is names after the Greek King Menander. It discusses a number of questions and disputed points of Buddhism. The ‘Dipavamsa’ and ‘Mahavamsa’ are the chronicles of Ceylon. The ‘Lalitavistara’ and ‘Vaipulya Sutras’ are important works in Sanskrit dealing with Buddhism. The Lalitavistara contains the story of the life of Buddha. The Vaipulya Sutras deal with Buddhist doctrines in 9 books.

The Jatakas deal with the previous births of Buddha. According to the Buddhists, Gautama Buddha had to pass through a series of births before he was born as a Sakya Prince and got enlightenment. About 549 Jataka stories have been collected and published. The Jatakas are of unique importance as they represent the entire life and thought of their age. They give us supplementary information which help us to check up information available from Brahmanical works. The Jatakas throw light on the political, social, economic and religious condition of the people. The Jatakas have been assigned to the 2^nd or 3^rd century BC. According to Dr. Winternitz, ‘the Jatakas were of inestimable value, not only as regards literature and art, but also from the point of view of the history of civilization for the period of the third century BC.

Jain literature also contains a lot of historical information. Prof. Jacobi and Dr. Banarasi Das have done a lot of work on Jain literature.

Several literary and other secular works supplement our knowledge of ancient India. The Mudraakshas of Visaka Data gives the story of Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya. It explains how the Nandas were overthrown and Chandragupta became the King of Magadha. The Arthashastra of Kautilya (Chanakya) contains a lot of information regarding the system of administration. It also gives an idea of the social and religious life of the people.

Patanjali’s Mahabhasya and Panini’s ‘Ashtahyayi’ are works of Sanskrit grammar, but there are occasional references to Kings, republics and other political events.

Certain writers brought out their literary works based on the lives of their royal patrons:

Banabhatta, the great master of Sanskrit prose, wrote ‘Harsha-Charita’ – the life of Emperor Harsha.

Two poets Vakpati and Bhilana, described the exploits of Yashovarman and Vikramaditya of the later Chalukya dynasty in two epic poems, the ‘Gaudavalsa’ and the ‘Vikramankadeva Charit’.

We also have a curious poetical work the ‘Rama Chatia’ in which the author uses throughout verses of double entendre, which taken one way describes the story of Ramayana and taken the other way describes the story of King Ramapala of Bengal. The other biographical works are ‘Kumarapala Charita’ of Jayasimha, ‘Kumarapala Charita’ of Hemchandra, Hammira Kavya of Naya Chandra, Navasashanka Charita of Padmagupta, Bhojaprabandha of Ballal, Prithvirajavijay by an anonymous writer, and Prithviraja Charita by Chand Bardai.

The various dramas written during this period also throw light on the political, social, economic, religious, and cultural aspects of ancient India.  The dramas of Kalidasa, such as ‘Shakuntala’ give useful information about the social life of the people. The two dramas of Bhasa known as ‘Svapnavasavadatta’ and ‘Pratijna Yaugandharanya’, give us interesting information about the political conditions of India in the time of King Pradyota of Ujjain. The three dramatic works ascribed to Harsha throw interesting light on the history of seventh century AD. Those plays are the ‘Nagananda’, the ‘Ratnavali’ and the ‘Priyadarsika’.

In Rajatarangini, Kalhana narrates the career of each King in chronological order. He gives a fair amount of detail, showing scrupulous impartiality in his criticism of men and events. Thus, he exhibits soundness of judgment and healthy liberality in his general expression of views. Gradually approaching nearer to his own age, Kalhana’s history becomes fuller and more filled with interesting accounts of men and things. It ceases to be merely a chronicle of dry details and faithfully presents the ebb and flow of national life, the periods of glory and misery and the greatness and weakness of men and rulers. Thus, Kalhana presents in his Rajatarangini all those minute details which make history a record of intense human interest, faithfully portraying the march of events through which a people works out its own destiny.

Kalhana’s Rajatarangini not only gives the History of Kashmir in a chronological order but also reflects Kalhana’s views on what he considered to be good government. According to Kalhana, the King should be strong rigidly controlling his underlings but benevolent towards his subjects and sympathetic towards their wishes. He should choose his advisors wisely and listen to their advice. At many places Kalhana has expressed his disapproval of the Damaras, the petty feudal chiefs who had reduced Kashmir to anarchy and misery. Kalhana was strongly opposed to bureaucracy.

As regards local history, references may be made to a large number of chronicles of Gujarat. These include well known works like Rasmala, Kirtikaumudi of Somesvara, Sukritasamkirtana of Arisimha, Prabandhachintamani by Mertunga, Parbandhakosa by Rajasekhara, Hammiramdamardana of Jayasimha, Sukritakirtikallolini of Udayaprabha, Vasantavilasa of Balachandra and others. These are treasure houses of stories and fables as well as historical anecdotes. The two biographies of Kumarapala and these chronicles enable us to trace the history of Gujarat, especially under the Chalukyas.

There are also local chronicles of Nepal, which merely contain a list of kings and the duration of their reigns, with only a few details here and there. The earlier portion of these Vamavalis, as they are called, is purely mythical, but there seems to be an historical basis for the accounts relating to the period commencing from the first century AD.

In the Dravidian language there are many historical references to the political history of India from the second century AD onwards. The Tamil Sangam works of the second and third centuries, gives us useful information about the South Indian civilization. In Kannada, Telugu and Malayalam there are many poems which give us useful information about the history of South India.

Foreign Sources

The accounts of any country and its people by foreign observers are of great interest to the historian of the country for they enable him to know what impression it made upon the mind of such observers and to estimate with greater confidence the part played by it in the general history of the world.

For the proper study of ancient Indian History, Greek sources are greatly important. India was known to the Greeks even before Alexanders invasion. But it is very unfortunate that most of this evidence is available to us only in fragments.

The first to write a book on India was Scylax, whom Darius sent in about 517 BC on a voyage of exploration to find out the course of the Indus. Next came the two great writers Herodotus and Clesias. Herodotus (484-406 BC) who, though much more exact, deals more with a great deal of fairy tales. However, he refers to the conquest of a small part of India by Darius and has also made some useful observations about the peoples of northwest borders of India. Clesias’ accounts are full of fables.

The historian who came in wake of Alexanders invasion are more exact than the previous writers. They are Nearchus, Onericritus, and above all the celebrated Megasthenes, the ambassador of Seleucus Nikator, in the court of Sandracottes (Chandragupta Maurya). The work of Megasthenes ‘Indica’ extend only in fragments to quoted by other authors, contains some useful information about the people and social system of India. It is a comprehensive work on India, apparently divided into 4 books describing the country, its soil, climate, animals and plants, its government and religion, the manner of the people and their arts. Although the work of Megasthenes is both interesting and authentic, it cannot but be charged with serious defects and shortcomings. This may be due to the fact that he was a foreigner and failed to understand the language, the customs and manners of the people.

Among the Greek accounts a special reference may be made to the classical writers, who through their writings throw useful light on the Geography and natural history of India. The earliest of them is the anonymous author of the ‘Periplus of the Erythraean Sea’. He was a Greek settled in Egypt, who made a voyage to the Indian coast about 80 AD, and left a record of its ports, harbors and merchandise. Ptolemy wrote a geographical account of India in the second century AD on scientific lines. Since he has derived most of his data from secondary sources, necessarily some errors have crept in but on the whole if gives some useful information. Pliny gave an account of the Indian animals plants and minerals in the first century AD. These classical accounts most of which have been translated into English were generally prompted by a spirit of exploration of unknown lands and reflect great credit on their authors and the scientific spirit of the age in which they lived.

The Chinese travellers who visited India in different periods of History have left their accounts about India which are of great help in reconstructing the ancient Indian History. From the beginning of the Christian era trade and cultural relations between Indian and China were of the most intimate kind and lasted for well over a thousand years. From about 400 AD onwards there was a regular stream of pious Chinese pilgrims pouring into India. Some of these were great scholars, who visited nearly the whole of the subcontinent and spent years in studying Indian learning at the famous universities of the age. About sixty pilgrims have left valuable records of their travels in India. Three of them, Fa Hein (fifth century AD), Hieun Tsang and It-sing (seventh century AD) are better known than others. They have recorded their experiences in fairly bulky volumes which are preserved in their original forms and have bee translated into English.

All three of them spent a number of years in India and learnt its language. Fa Hein and Hieun Tsang travelled widely almost all over the country. However, these eminent Chinese visitors were all devout Buddhist monks, whose journey to India was merely a pilgrimage to holy lands. Thus, their outlook was purely religious. Neither Fa Hein or ItSing refer to secular matters, except very incidentally nor do they mention the name of the King or Kings whose dominions were visited by them. However, Hieun Tsang gives some interesting information about his royal patron Harshavardhana and other contemporary kings of India. He also briefly refers to the political condition of the kingdoms through which he passed and devotes an entire chapter to a general account of India. Further the works of the Tibetan Lama Taranatha, the Dulva’ and some aspects of the ancient Indian History. The Chinese travellers through their writings have rendered great service by depicting the state of Buddhism in India.

The Arab travellers, geographers and historians were attracted by India from eight century AD. The early Arab writers deal with the country and its inhabitants rather than on history in the proper sense. Among early works, Kitab al Fihrist, a great biographical collection, the Kitab futuhal Boldan of Al Beladori, Dictionary of Countries by Al Kazwin are worthy of mention.

From nineth century onwards India figured prominently in Muslim chronicles. For instance, the Kitab al Yamini of Utbi covers the history upot 1022 AD. The best account of India was written by Abu Rihan, better knonw as Al-Beruni. His sphere includes the whole range of human sciences such as philosophy, mathematics, chronology, medicine, etc. His book Taukh al Hind is an erudite work throwing much light on ancient Indian culture. It is universally regarded as a comprehensive work on India ever written by a foreigner. Al Beruni was a man of versatile genius and a scholar of Sanskrit. He was a contemporary of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. While the ruthless conqueror was harrying India by fire and sword, destroying and plundering its cities and temples, the great Arabic scholar engaged himself in studying the culture and civilization of the country. However, form the point of view of Indian history Al Beruni’s great work suffers from two defects. In the first place, he says little or nothing of the political condition of India. Secondly, his account rests primarily on his study of Indian literature and is not based on personal observation. He gives an admirable survey of the mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, astrology, geography, philosophy, religious rites, customs, social ideas, etc., of India.

SOUTHERN CAMPAIGN OF SAMUDRAGUPTA

During his career of more than two decades, Samudragupta invaded South India more than once and it is his important campaign.

Altogether 12 Kings and Princes of the South (Dakshinapatha) are listed in the inscription. In the case of the Kings of this area, he followed the policy of first capturing the Kings, then releasing them from captivity and reinstating them as Kings in their territory. By showing royal mercy he won their allegiance. (Being a shrewd ruler, he realized that he could not permanently rule over such distant regions, but it was the wealth of the Deccan which attracted him).

For his South Indian Campaign, Samudragupta proceeded through the eastern and southern parts of Madhyadesha to Orissa and then advanced along the Eastern coast and reached Kanchi and beyond and returned to his capital by way of Maharashtra and Khandesh.

After these conquests, he performed Ashvamedha Yajna. On this occasion, he issued gold coins depiction the sacrificial horse bearing the legend conveying that he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.

The Allahabad Pillar inscription also lists fourteen kingdoms bordering his kingdom. These rulers paid tribute, followed his orders and showed their obedience by attending his court. These were located in Eastern Rajasthan, Northern Madhya Pradesh, Assam and Nepal. Further, some forest kings (Atavika Rajas) are mentioned whom Samudragupta had made his ‘paricharaka’ (helpers).

Another group of political powers listed in the inscription are Kushanas, Sakas, Murundas as well as Simhalas (Srilanka) and inhabitants of other islands. These rulers sent embassies to Samudragupta’s court. According to a Chinese source, Meghavarna, King of Srilanka, sent and embassy to Samudragupta for his permission to build a monastery and guest house for Buddhist pilgrims at Bodhgaya.

Samudragupta launched several expeditions to the south. It is impossible to determine which states were humbled in which campaign and consequently the routes of his invasions cannot be determined. It is quite possible that some of the coastal states like Kanchi and Kerala were invaded directly by sea route with the help of the imperial navy.

NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION IN INDIA

Neolithic Age in India – The word ‘neolithic’ is derived form the two Greek words ‘neo’ meaning ‘new’ and ‘lithic’ meaning ‘stone’.  So Neolithic age means New stone age. In this period, the men used polished tools and weapons of different varieties.

The Neolithic is generally defined as a way of lie involving crop cultivation, animal husbandry and settled life. In the Indian context Neolithic Age began in 7000 BC. Mehrgarh situated in Baluchistan is the only site belonging to this period

This age marks the climax of the growth of stone age culture. During this period stone continued to be the main material used by man in his daily life. But the implements of this age are far more superior than the preceding age. The tools are polished and have geometric designs. Various types of stones such as the fine grained dark green trap, diorite, basalt, slate and sandstone were used for making tools. These tools were highly finished. Different shapes and sizes were given to the tools according to the requirements of purpose. The implements include axes, celts, adzes, chisels, picks, hammers, discs and sling stones.

The Neolithic age does not simply mark a distinct progress in tool making industry; but introduces revolutionary changes in the different aspects of human life. Following are some changes:

-          Man came to know about the use of fire which changed his food habits and made his life more comfortable

-          Beginnings of agriculture is another landmark of this age. As a result of this the Neolithic man started plantation of fruit trees and growing corn

-          The beginning of agriculture coincided with the domestication of animals such as dog, cow, ox and goat. The domesticated animals helped man in agriculture and transport. They also provided milk.

-          Agriculture and domestication of animals required the man to stay at a particular place and thus brought a settled life. Instead of taking shelter only in caves, he build houses of wood and thatch. It paved the way of settled civilization.

-          Every change that occurred during this age proved to be the cause of further changes. With the beginning of cooking food and agriculture, a change in the form of utensils had become inevitable. This inevitability resulted in the introduction of the potters industry. In the beginning only handmade pottery was known. The discovery of the wheel accelerated the progress of human civilization tremendously. The wheel simplified the manufacturing of pottery as well as increased the speed of production.

-          The Neolithic age also marked the beginning of spinning and weaving industry

-          The settled life of the Neolithic age was bund to encourage the aesthetic sense of man. The cave dwellers of het period burnished and polished the cave walls and used them for drawing different types of paintings. Such paintings can be seen in the rock shelters at Bhimbetka near Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh.

-          The Neolithic people also developed social institutions and religious beliefs. The institution of family is said to have taken its roots during this period. The dead bodies were kept in urns and were buried along with food and the objects used by the dead persons. The burials were protected by roof of stones and a stone circle around. It indicates that people had deep regard toward the dead persons. It also gives an indication of the belief in life after death.

Neolithic sites:

Burzahom in Kashmir – At this site dogs and wolves were buried with their owners.

Gufral in Kashmir – ‘Gufral’ literally means ‘cave of the potter’.

Mehrgarh – regarded as the ‘bread basket’ of Baluchistan

Gumla on the right bank of Indus

Saraikhola near Taxila

Jalilpur near left bank of Ravi – characterized by stone blade industry, terracotta net sinkers for fishing.

Koldihwa and Mahagara near south of Allahabad. Here we find evidence of rice in the form of charred rice and Neolithic pots containing rice husks. This is the oldest evidence of rice cultivation not only in India but also anywhere in the world.

NUMISMATIC SOURCES FOR THE HISTORY OF THE GUPTAS

Important data regard the Gupta Age is revealed to us through the coins of the period.

The first hoard of Gupta coins was discovered as early as 1783 at Kalighat. Later on many such hoards were discovered.

In 1914, Allan published his famous ‘Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties’, in which the coins found at Bharsar (1851), Jessore (1852), Hugli (1883), Tanda (1885), Kotwa (1885), Basti (1887), Hazipur (1893) and Tekri Delna (1910) were put together.

Later A. S. Altekar published his ‘Coinage of the Gupta Empire’ in which the coins found at Kasarva (1414), Mitathal (1915), Sakori (1914), Kumarakhan (1953) and Bayana (1946) were included.

The Bayana hoard is the largest hoard of the Gupta gold coins discovered so far. The Early Gupta Emperors modelled their coinage after the gold coinage of the imperial Kushanas; though very soon the process of Indianization was at work and within a few decades the Gupta coinage had become almost thoroughly Indian in character.

From the internal evidence of a coins – series, we know about some specific events in the Gupta political history.

From the Ashvamedha type coins of Kumaragupta I we know that he performed this expensive sacrifice.

From Chandragupta I – Kumaradevi type we know the importance of Gupta Lichchhavi alliance.

The coin types issued by Samudragupta create the impression that his reign was marked by unusual military activity while the types issued by Chandragupta II give the impression that in his reign the atmosphere in the Gupta court had become more sober and sophisticated.

The Gupta Kings rarely announce their full titles on the coins, though they mention their personal epithets.

The Gupta rulers inscribed on their coins legends announcing their meritorious deeds. This is in contrast to the coins issued by foreign rulers.

The coinage of the successors of Kumaragupta I reveal a gradual decline in their artistic execution and finesse. It not only indicated the general deterioration in the economic condition of the empire but also helps us in assigning a probable date to a king who is not known from other sources. For, generally speaking, the coins of the rude fabric are relatively later than the finely executed types. The inference is strengthened by the history of the metrology of the Gupta gold coins.

The coins of Chandragupta I follow the standard of 121 grains. The same is the case with most of the coins of Samudragupta though some of them are even lighter and weigh in the vicinity of 115 and 118.

The coins of Chandragupta II follow three weight standards of 121, 124 and 127 grains. On the other hand, in the reign of Kumaragupta I the standard of 127 grains acquired the greatest popularity.

In Chandragupta II’s time 121 was the most popular. Skandagupta gave up all these standards and adopted the standard 132 grains for his so-called ‘King and Lakshmi’ type and variety A of the Archer type. For variety B of Archer type he adopted the Suvarna standard of 144 grains though usually the coins of this type weigh in the vicinity of 141.5 grains only. His successors generally followed the national standard (144 grains), though with the passage of time, their coins became heavier.

Further, the coins of the later imperial Guptas are more heavily adulterated with alloy than the coins of the early rulers. The coins of Chandragupta I have less than 9% alloy and those of Samudragupta and Chandragupta II 10% to 15%.

But the Archer type of coins of Kumaragupta I and the coinage of subsequent rulers contain an alloy ranging nearly between 20% to 30% while some coins attributed to Narasimhagupta and Kumaragupta Vikramaditya have as much as 46% of alloy. The metal became still more debased during the reign of Vishnugupta who was probably the last emperor of the dynasty. His coins have only 43% of pure gold.

Twenty four hoards of Gupta coins have been discovered. 14 of them are located in Eastern UP; 2 each in Bengal and Bihar, 3 in MP and 1 each in Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.

It must also be noted that the Gupta Age was known as the Golden Age in Indian History and this is evident from the number of gold coins issued (and found) during this period. It shows the prosperity of the Gupta Kings.

THE HINDU CULTURAL REVIVAL AND THE IMPORTANCE OF THE GUPTA AGE

 Before the advent of the Guptas, the most prominent feature of the history of the period beginning from the decline of the Kushans, was the rise, growth and development of the sentiment of nationality which revealed itself in almost every aspect of the life of the nation. It was brought about partly as a reaction against a prolonged political domination by the aliens like Greeks, Parthians, Kushans and Saka Satraps and partly against the Buddhist domination in the realm of religion. This national movement was set on foot by the Nagas was continued by the Vakatakas and was carried to its logical conclusions by the imperial Guptas. The movement was marked by a spirit of revolt against foreign things and by a keen desire for restoring Indian things. It was a nation-wide attempt to revive the Indo-Aryan culture. The foreign rule in the country was, by degrees, replaced by indigenous Indian rule in northern, central and western India; the influence of the foreign art which was completely shake off; Buddhism was brought down from its high pedestal. It was gradually assimilated and absorbed into the parental Brahmanism, the use of Pali and Prakrit languages was discarded in favor of Sanskrit, the tradition of imperial unity was gradually fostered and the ideal of enlightened government was practiced.

The Naga rulers first appeared as the champions of the national cause early in the third century. They organized a struggle against the foreigners and swept away the alien Kushan rule from the Gangetic basin and Mathura and re-established the Hindu rule and the imperial traditions. They played an important prat in the cultural history of the country by reviving the old Vedic rites and the study of Sanskrit language and literature. The introduction of the Devanagari script, in which Sanskrit and Hindi languages are written today, was the outcome of the Naga patronage.

The cultural revivalist movement was passed on to the new ruling dynasty of the Vakatakas. The aim of the Vakatakas, like that of the Nagas, was the establishment of Hindu sovereignty and reviving Hindu religion, Hindu culture and Sanskrit language – all of which had suffered a serious set back since the days of Asoke. The restoration of political power under the Vakatakas provided a strong stimulus and the whole country began to pulsate with new life.

Under the patronage of the Vakatakas, the seeds of the political, religious, social and literary revival were freely and widely scattered in the country and bore a bumper crop under the rule of the benign imperial Guptas. Again it was through the Vakatakas that the culture of northern India began to penetrate into the south.

The noble heritage of the revivalist movement was bequeathed by the Vakatakas to the Guptas. Chandragupta Vikramaditya, by defeating the last of the Saka Satrapa of Malwa and Saurashtra, swept away the last vestiges of the foreign rule in India. This had the effect of reviving Hindu imperialism and confusion and disintegration gave place to unity. The worship of the old Vedic gods and the revival of the Ashwamedha sacrifices and other Vedic rites which had been started by the Nagas and Vakatakas found further favor with the Guptas. The Brahmanical religion reared its head once again. Buddhism lost royal patronage and the status of being the state religion. Once more it was becoming a mere sect. The literary and cultural renaissance which began under the Vakataka princes, flourished luxuriantly under the Guptas. The arts of architecture, sculpture and painting which had been encouraged by the Vakatakas flourished on large scale in the time of the Guptas when the whole country enjoyed blessings of peace and plenty. The master artisans breathed the spirit of the age and shook off the influence of the Greeco-Buddhist school of Gandhara in the sphere of fine arts. In place of the scenes and stories of the Hindu Gods and avatars were used as the subject of skill both by the sculptor and the painter. In short, Indian intellect and character blossomed forth under the Guptas and the spirit of the age manifested itself in art, architecture, printing and music. The Gupta period, during which the Renaissance Movement, attained its full development, accomplishing great achievements in the realm of art and literature, is rightly called the Golden Age of Hinduism and the period of Hindu Renaissance.

Apart from this, greater India sprang into existence during the Gupta Age. Indian culture spread abroad and India now entered her glorious period of expansion and colonization and her foreign relations which had a setback were re-established with their former dignity and prestige.

 

 

 

 

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIA

Ancient India gave the world a rich culture and civilization at a time when many other regions still remained uncivilized. But hardly any record of ancient history was maintained. The establishment of British rule in India gave rise to systematic study of Indian history.

In 1784 Sir William Jones founded the Asiatic Society of India for the study of History through study of antiquities found in India and other countries. Scholars like James Princep, Francis Buchanan, Alexander Cunningham and Sir John Marshall collected old manuscripts and other antiquities, on the basis of which, they tried to trace ancient history.

Classification of sources

The sources of ancient Indian History can be broadly classified as Literary and Archaeological.

1. Literary Sources – Contain detailed information about the political, social, economic and religious conditions of those times. The literary sources can be further classified into Sacred and Secular Literature.

a. Sacred Literature – These are religious texts. They are classified as: Brahmanical, Jain and Buddhist.

-          Brahmanical literature is written in Sanskrit language and includes Vedic literature, the Epics, Puranas, Smritis and Dharmasutras.

-          The Vedic literature is the oldest in India.  There are four main Vedas. The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘vid’ meaning ‘to know’. The four main Vedas are:

-          A. Rig Veda – A collection of hymns revealed by god through the Rishis

-          B. Sama Veda – Derived from Rig Veda – it consists of verses praising various gods and goddesses. Each verse is assigned with a melody. Sama Veda is a text of rituals

-          C. Yajur Veda is a ‘Book of Sacrificial Prayers’, it provides guidance towards more complex rituals.

-          D. Atharva Veda is known as the Book of Magic Formulae. It consists of spells and incantations against evil spirits and illnesses.

Brahmanas are commentaries on the Vedic texts

Arayankas are discourse on different spiritual and philosophical problems from the Vedic texts.

Upanishads are independent treatises on spiritual and philosophical problems. They mark the beginning of Indian Philosophy.

The Vedas, Brahamanas, Aryankas and Upanishads are part of the Shruti literature. Shruti means ‘revelation’ – inspired by god

The Smriti literature (Dharmashastras) belong to the post Vedic period. They show the change from simplicity of the early Vedic period to a rigid society. In order to regulate the social life of the people 5 kinds of sutras were created

Shrouta Sutra – which explained sacrificial rituals

Griha Sutra – which describes domestic rites and ceremonies

Kalpa Sutra – Manuals

Sulva Sutra and Dharma sutras specifying laws and social customs.

EPICS – RAMAYANA and MAHABHARATA are the two Sanskrit epics. They give us information about the life in ancient India

Ramayan written by Valmiki is the biography of Lord Rama – the ideal son, husband, brother and king.

Mahabharata composed by Vyasa give a glimpse of primitive Indian society.

The Bhagvad Gita, the philosophy of Hindus to date, is a part of Mahabharata.

The Ramayana depicts the southwards expansion of the Aryans where as the Mahabharata shows the synthesis of the Aryan and non Aryan cultures.

Puranas – deal with the process of evolution of the universe. There are 18 puranas. They form the main source of study for the pre-Buddhist era.

JAIN LITERATURE

-          It was written in Prakrit language. ( a form of Sanskrit)

-          It contains 12 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Prakirnas, 6 Chedda Sutras, 4 Mula Sutras and 4 Miscellaneous Tests.

-          It contains a lot of information about the social economic, political and religious conditions of the period

BUDDHIST LITERATURE

-          It was written in Pali (a form of Prakrit) prevalent in Magadha

-          It consists of 3 Pitakas (baskets). They are – Vinaya Pitaka – which consists of the monastic code of conduct, Sutta Pitaka – reveals ethical principles of Buddhism and Abhidamma Pitaka – which deals with Buddhist Philosophy.

-          There are also 5 Buddhist nikayas.

-          The non-canonical literature includes Milinda Panha, Petakopadesah and Mahavamsa.

2. Secular Literature – Can be classified as Indian and Foreign accounts.

INDIAN

Ancient Indian literature is present in various forms such as drama, biographies, treatises, grammar, poems etc which give valuable information on the life of the people.

Information on the social life of the people

-          Panini’s Ashtadhyayi

-          Patanjali’s Mahabhashya

-          Katyayana’s Vartika

Indian Polity

-          Kautilya’s Arthasastra

Sanskrit drama

-          Kalidasa’s Shakuntala and Malvikagnimitram

-          Bhasa’s Swapnavasavadatta

-          Vishakadutta’s Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragupta

Biographies and chronicles give valuable information

-          Banabhatta’s Harshacharita

-          Chandrabardai’s Prithviraja Raso

-          Kalhana’s Rajatarangini – gives history of Kashmir from 8^th to 12^th century

FOREIGN ACCOUNTS

Many foreign travelers have left accounts of India. Prominent among them are the works of the Chinese Greek and Arab travelers.

Greek

-          Herodotus

-          Curtius

-          Pliny

-          Ptolemy

-          Megasthenes – ambassador at the court of Chandragupta Maurya (Indica)

Chinese (pilgrims)

-          Fa Hein

-          Hiuen Tsang

-          I-tsing

Arabs

-          Alberuni’s Tarikh I Hind

-          Al Masudi

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

These include inscriptions (Epigraphy), coins (Numismatics), structural remains, pottery, tools, sculptures, paintings and other antiquities found in excavations. These sources provide us very authentic information about the political, social, economic, religious and cultural life of the people.