CONCEPT OF ASHOKAS DHAMMA

ASHOKAS DHAMMA

After the Kalinga War, the greatest ideal and objective before Ashoka was the propagation of Dhamma for the fulfillment of which he worked relentlessly. The Dhamma as explained in Ashoka’s edicts is not a religion or religious system, but a ‘Moral Law’, ‘a common code of conduct’ or an ‘Ethical Order’, which is a common meeting ground of all religions.

Ashoka explaining what is dhamma, enumerates two basic attributes or constituents of Dhamma: less evils or sins (ap ansinave) and many good deeds (bahu Kayane). He enumerates the Asinavas or sin, such as rage or fury, cruelty, anger, pride and envy, which are to be avoided and many good deeds (bahu kayane) - kindness, liberality, truthfulness, gentleness, self-control, purity of heart, attachment to morality, inner and outer purity etc., - which are to be pursued vigourously. The two attributes constitute the ‘Doctrinal’ or negative and positive aspects of Ashokas dhamma.

The Code of Duties / Practical Dhamma

1. Obedience to mother and father, elders, teachers and other respectful persons.

2. Respect towards teachers

3. Proper treatment towards ascetics, both Brahmanas and Sramanas, relations, slaves, servants and dependents, the poor and miserable, friends, acquaintances and companions.

4. Liberality towards ascetics, friends, comrades, relatives and the aged.

5. Abstention from killing of living beings.

6. Non injury to all living creatures.

7. Moderation in spending and saving.

8. Mildness in case of all living creatures.

9. Truthfulness

10. Purity of heart.

The Dhamma of Edicts is not merely a guide to action. It is distinguished by several characteristic doctrines and philosophical positions, bringing out the originality of Ashoka’s ideas of moral reform. Toleration was insisted on as an absolute duty in a multi religious country like India. Ashoka tried to instill moral law (Dhamma) as the governing principle and force in every sphere of life and to spiritualize politics and all human activities. The Dhamma thus presented in these Edicts is but another name for the moral or virtuous life and takes its stand upon the common meeting ground of all religions. It is not sectarian in any sense, but is completely cosmopolitan, capable of universal application and acceptance as essence of all religions. Thus, he laid the basis of a universal religion and was probably the first to do so in history.

After the Kalinga War, Ashoka considered the Dhamma Vijaya, the victory based on piety and morality, as the real victory. In Pillar Edict I, he sums up his intentions by saying that he wants the maintenance, governance, happiness and protection of the people to be regulated by Dhamma. He further stressed the paternal concept of monarchy ‘All men are my children, and just as I desire for my children that they obtain welfare and happiness, both in this world and the next, so do I desire the same for all men’.

Ashoka’s dhamma was intended to strengthen social solidarity or social relationships, whether between parents and children, elders and young friends or various ideological sects. It was included as an ethical concept related to the individual in the context of his society.

Measures for the propagation of Dhamma

Ashoka took a number of measures for the propagation of Dhamma throughout his Empire. He adopted the doctrines of Dhamma as a governing principle of his personal life and public policies. Some of the significant measures were:

1. Issue of Dhamma lipis and Dhamma stambhas respectively in the form of Rock and Pillar Edicts describing the attributes of Dhamma

2. Appointment of Dhamma mahamatras.

3. Dhamma – Yatras, royal tours for the propagation of Dhamma.

4. Dhamma-mangala public welfare activities in accordance with the spirit of Dhamma.

5. Preaching of Dhamma by regulations and persuasions.

6. Administrative measures suited to the principles of Dhamma.

CONTRIBUTION OF THE PALLAVAS IN THE FIELD OF ART AND ARCHITECTURE

 Discuss the contribution of the Pallavas in the field of art and architecture.

The history of architecture and sculpture in South India begins with the Pallava temples which introduce a new technique called the Dravidian style. In addition to the temples in Kanchi and other places, ‘some of the rock-cut temples known as the seven pagodas or rathas of Mamallapurama are built in this style which may justly be called the Pallava style of art’. In fact, Pallava contribution to Indian culture is unique. Undoubtedly their edifices are among the noblest monuments in South India. From an early date they created an architecture of their own which was to be the basis of all the styles of the South. The cave and structural temples and other architectural remains of the Pallavas form an important chapter in Hindu art. The Pallava architecture has two phases:

1. Rockcut architecture from 610-690; it includes mandapas or rathas (monolithic temples)

2. Structural from 690-900; it includes temples.

 

A mandapa is an open pavilion, a hall with cells in the back wall. It is excavated in a rock. A ratha is a monolithic shrine. Many of the architectural productions of the Pallavas have a figure of a lion on the prominent place. This heraldic beast was made to serve as a symbol of the Pallava Simhavishnu or lion (simha) ancestry.

The twon of Mahavallipuram or Mamallapuram, 32 miles south of Madras, founded by the great Pallava King Narasimhavarman (625-645) on the sea-beach, has many cave-temples or mandapas decorated with fine reliefs. The mandapas are 10 in number and are found on the hill. They are remarkable not for their size but for the exceptional character of their design and execution. The pillars, the façade and the sculpture combined with the architecture are the salient features of these mandapas. The pillar is made to rest on the sedent animal’s head and it has fluted and banded shaft, refined necking, the elegant curves, and lotus form with wide abacus. The relief work and architectural features are designed and executed in admirable way.

The monolithic temples called rathas, known as, ‘seven pagodas’ are another type of remarkable rock cut architecture at Mamallapuram. They are named after the five Pandava brothers and Draupadi, each carved out from a single massive granite stone upon the seashore. They are complete with all the details of an ordinary temple and stand today as undying testimony to the super quality of Pallava art. These rathas are of no great size, the largest measuring only 42 feet long, the widest 35 feet and the tallest 40 feet high. They number eight in all with the exception of Draupadi’s ratha which is the smallest, simplest and most finished, others are derived from the Buddhist structure of a Vihara or a monastery and Chaitya Hall or temple. The Dharmaraja ratha is the largest. The Bhima ratha with its three upper stories is the finest and most interesting of the group. The Ganesh ratha has architectural form known in later Dravidian architecture as Gopuram – the gateway. The significant point to note here is that ‘these rathas formed the originals from which all the vimanas in South India were copied and continued to be copied nearly unchanged to a very late period’ (Gokhale). These monolithic shrines or rathas were of Saivism as in their proximity are images carved in rock, of a lion, an elephant and a bull, symbolizing respectively Durga, Indra and Shiva. Probably each ratha was a shrine consecrated to one of the manifestations of Shiva.

These mandapas and rathas are adorned with marvellous figure sculpture. The Pallava sculpture here reveals a finer feeling for form, experience craftsmanship, a noteable sense of restraint and a refined simplicity. Among the sculptures, one large composition on rock has obtained great celebrity. It is cut down from one standing soldi rock 98 feet long and 43 feet wide. The scene represented is usually described as the penance of Arjun, but now it is held by art critics and scholars that it represents the Descent of the Ganges. Towards the end of the 7^th century the art of excavated ratha or mandapa was given up and the second phase of the Pallava art, the art of structural edifices, was taken up and it occupied the whole of the 8^th century. Splendid temples were constructed; their lofty towers were built tier upon tier, diminishing in size towards a summit, typifying all the wealth, munificence and grandeur of the Pallavas. The most wonderful example of the Pallava structural art is the famous Kailasa temple at Kanchi. There the shrine with its sikhara or pyramidal tower and flat roofed mandapam is surrounded by a series of cells, resembling rathas. The temple of Vaikuntha Perumal at Canjeevaram is another marvelous example of the art. Here the Pallava style of architecture is seen in its most mature form. It is larger and more spacious that the afore-stated Kailash temple. Here the principle parts, the cloisters, portico and sanctuary, instead of being separate buildings, are amalgamated into one architectural whole. This has produced a unity of conception and considerable architectural merit. To sum up, the Pallava art evolved splendid huge temples of stone. Sometimes the upper part was made of bricks. Above the main shrine pyramidal tower was constructed.

The style of Pallava architecture not only set the standard in the South but also largely influenced the architecture of the Indian colonies in the Far East. The Pallava art was transmitted beyond the seas to the countries of south east Asia like Indonesia ‘where its effulgence, reflected in the vast monuments of those civilizations, shone with even greater splendor than in the country of its origin’ (Percy Brown). The schools of sculpture which developed out of the Pallava art in Java and Cambodia displayed the high artistic character and the superb quality of the Pallava plastic art. The Khmer sculptures at Angkor Thom and Angkor Vat and the bas-reliefs on the stupa temple of Borobudur owe some of their characteristics to the rock cut monoliths of Mamallapuram. The characteristic Pallava or Dravidian type of shikara is met with the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam. But there are important differences between them and the South Indian temples. The pillars that form an important adjunct to the latter are altogether absent in the former. Credit goes to the Pallavas for having kept burning brightly the torch, which kindled by the Buddhist in the early centuries of the Christian era at Amaravati, was bequeathed to these Simha Vishnu ‘lion’ kings, Pallvas. Later on its flame glowed with renewed brilliance in the hands of the Chola and subsequent rulers of Southern India.  

SHER SHAH AS A RULER (1540-1545 AD)

Describe the administrative system of Sher Shah

As A Ruler: Sher Shah is considered to be one of the greatest rulers of medieval India.

According to Ershine "He rose to the throne from (on) his own talents and showed himself worthy of the elevation which he attained".

Sher Shah ascended to the throne of Delhi at the ripe age of 67 by overthrowing the Mogul ruler Humayun and thus re-establishing the Afghan power in India.

Early life: His original name was Farid and he was born in 1486 A.D. Sher Shah did not belong to a rich family and in no way was connected with a royal family or with any well-known military commander or religious preacher. Thus, he was a man without any high connections, influence or status and he did not get any support from anybody in this career. Whatever he achieved, he achieved simply by his own efforts and capability. Sher Shah's father Hasan was a small jagidar at Sasaram in Bihar Sher Shah acquired rich administrative experience by handling his father's jagir.

Following the confusion after the death and defeat of Ibrahim Lodi, Sher Shah emerged as one of the most important Afghan Sardars. He got the title "Sher Khan" after killing a tiger.

During his encounters with the Mughuls Sher Shah proved to be a superior general and succeeded in defeating Humayun in the battle of Chalsa (1539) and then the battle of Kanjauj after which he captured Delhi and Agra and snatched the throne from the Mughals.

Extent of his Empire: His empire embraced practically the whole of northern India, except Kashmir, Assam and Gujarat. In the West he conquered Marwar and almost the entire Rajasthan. He defeated Maldeo the powerful ruled of Marwar and then captured Ajmer, Jodhpur and Mewar. In the north it was bounded by the Himalayas and in the South by the Vidhya mountains. The empire includes most of Punjab upto river Indus and Multan and Sindh. In the South it comprised of Rajputana, Malwa and Bundel Khand.

The Administration of Sher Shah. "He was in truth one of the greatest rulers who ever sat on the throne of Delhi. No other ruler from Akbar to Aurangzeb was able to control public business so minutely and effectively as he" commented Sir Woolseley Haig.

"Sher Shah was a good administrator but he was not an innovator" says Dr. Ram Prasad Tripathi.

Sher Shah was one of the best administrators among the rulers of medieval India but he did not invent any novelty in administration. His revenue administration was not entirely novel while his military reforms were based on the reforms introduced by Alauddin Khilji. Sher Shah learnt from the experiences of others. The different measures pursued by his predecessors were so adopted by him that they looked like new innovations. Besides, he practised them with such a masterly hand that all his administrative measures succeeded in bringing out order, peace, strength and prosperity to the state as well as to his subjects. That itself is sufficient to regard him as one of the best administrations among the rulers of medieval India.

Sher Shah was not only a conqueror but also an excellent administrative genius.

M.W. Crookes does justice by saying "That he, Sher Shah introduced such reforms in his short reign of 5 years which is wonderful proof of his executive ability"

According to Keen "No government, even the British has shown so much wisdom as this Pathan."

Prof. Quango describes him as "The greatest administrative and military genius among the Afghans"

The Centralised Administration: The king was the administrative head and exercised all authority. He was a benevolent despot whose aim was to do good to his subjects. His Ministers did not make decisions themselves. All major decisions were taken by Sher Shah himself and the ministers and nobles simply carried them out.

Sher Shah worked hard for sixteen hours a day and looked after the working of every department of the state.

The Ministers: The ministers who assisted him were more like Secretaries. They had no power of initiative or final decision of any policy but they were there simply because of the convenience of the administration. Sher Shah had four ministers after the model of the Sultanate pd. There were departments whose administrative heads enjoyed the position of ministers. They as follows:

1. Diwan-i-wazirat: The head of this department was called the Wazir (Vazir). He was primarily, the finance minister and looked after the income and expenditure of the State though he enjoyed a general supervisory authority over all ministers.

2. Diwan-i-arz: This department was under the Arz-i-Mumalik who was the army minister. He was not the commander-in-chief of the army but looked after the recruitment, organisation, discipline, disbursement of the salaries of the soldiers and officers and all sorts of supplies to the army.

3. Barid- i – Mumalk: looked after the intelligence department. He reported important events and developments to the Sultan. He looked after the news writers and spies of the State who were posted at all important places in the empire. He also arranged news carriers to carry the royal dak.

4. There seems to have been another high official who looked after the royal household and personal safety of the Sultan.

5. Diwan-i-Insha: Ministry which drafter royal proclamations in letters. All official correspondence with the governors and other officials passed through this office.

6. Sadr-us-Sadr: presided over Diwan-i-Rasalat dealt with religious matters, charity, endowments. He also looked into correspondence with other states and received their envoys and dignitaries. He also in the capacity of Qazi-i-Mumalik administered justice.

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION:

Sher Shah did not make any changes in the administrative division.

1) Sarkars - Sher Shah's empire was divided into 47 units called Sarkars or districts. There were two chief officers in every Sarkar.

i) Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran or Chief Shiqdar was a military officer. He maintained peace in his Sarkar and helped in the collection of revenue and other taxes.

ii) Munsif-i-Musifan or the Chief Munsif. He was primarily a judicial officers who decided only civil cases and looked after the working of his subordinate judicial officers in the Parghanas.

2) Parghanas: Each Sarkar was divided into smaller units called Parghanas. There was a Shiqdar (military officer), Amin or Munsif (civilian judge) one Fotahdar (treasurer) and two Karkuns (clerks or writers) in each Pargana.

3) Villages: Sher Shah left the administration of villages in the hands of their hereditary officers like Chaukidars, Patwaris etc. The village panchayat also enjoyed a large measure of independence in looking after the welfare of the people. All of them assisted state officials in collecting revenue and maintaining law and order.

Sher Shah introduced the system of transferring the officers of the Sarkars and Parghanas every two or three years.

There were 'thanas' or military outposts when imperial troops wen stationed.

III. FINANCE:

Land Revenue Reforms:

Sher Shah paid special attention to the land revenue system. Having administered his father's jagir for a number of years and then posing as the virtual ruler of Bihar. Sher Shah was well acquainted with the working of the land revenue system at all levels.

Sher Shah believed that the welfare of the State could be achieved only by looking after the welfare of the peasants.

Thus with the help of a capable team of administrators he toned up th entire system.

1)    He first ordered the measurement of land according to a uniform standard.

2)    A record was kept of the settlement made between the government and the cultivator. The peasants were given paras (title deeds) by the state specifying the revenue which they had to pay. The farmer had to sign the Qabuliyat which was kept as a record in the revenue office. The Qabuliyats were in local languages.

3)    The state preferred to collect revenue in the form of cash for that purpose, prices of every variety of cereals were fixed in different places.

4)    He divided the land according to its fertility, into good. middling and bad. The average of these three was taken and thus the produce per bigha was ascertained. The state share was fixed at 1/3rd of the average produce. The state demanded revenue in cash.

Schedule of crop rates called "Rai" was preserved showing method and rates of assessment.

5)    The peasants had also to pay two more taxes, named the ¡aribana (surveyor's fee) and the mahasilana (tax collector's fee) to the state. These constituted 2.1/2 per cent to 5 percent of their produce.

6)    Besides these, the peasants had to pay 2.1/2 percent of their produce in kind to be returned to them in case of any natural calamity such a flood, famine etc.

7)    Sher Shah showed leniency at the time of assessment but was rather strict at the time of collection. People who did not pay were flogged, punished etc.

8)    Every care was taken to protect the crop from destruction during the course of war and it damaged the peasants were compensated by the state.

The officials to collect revenue:

1) At the village level the Muquddam collected revenue and he had a supervisor called Patwari.

2) Pargana level - Shiqdar - collected revenue – Qanungo Supervisor.

3) Amin was the head of the revenue administration in the centre.

The revenue administration suffered from certain defects.

I) The peasants who possessed middle and bad quality of land had to pay more as compared to the owners of good quality land under this system.

2) The taxation under which the peasants had to pay. 1/3 of their product as revenue, the jaribana and the mahasilana and further tax for emergencies was certainly heavy for the peasants.

3) The collection in cash depended on correct information, proper inquiry, prompt report and instruction from the central government. The procedure was dilatory and not quite dependable. It delayed the work of collection thus causing confusion.

4) Having a common schedule for the whole of North India was a major defect as land and production varied from area to area.

5) There was corruption in the revenue department and Sher Shah failed to uproot it.

Evaluation:

1) He inspired some efficiency in the administration because of his vigilance and strictness.

2) Because of prior assessment he freed the farmers from arbitrary collection.

3) Land was surveyed and measurement was undertaken in the entire Empire. There was uniformity in the revenue administration.

Other Sources of Revenue:

1) Khams 1/6 of the plunder taken during the time of war, jaziya - tax levied on the Hindus, Salt tax, Custom duties, mint, sugar tax, sales tax (sale of property) and presents from subordinate rulers, governors, nobles, traders etc.

IV. Trade & Commerce Reforms:

1) Currency:

He brought an improvement in currency. Well executed coins of gold, silver and copper, uniform in value, replaced the old debased ones of mixed metal.

"His silver rupee was so excellent as to be considered a standard coin for centuries after him: - R.P. Tripathi. His silver rupee and copper dam had the halves, quarters, eights and sixteenths. Sher Shah's coins were both square and circular in shape and bore, the name and title of the emperor and the place of mint. Some coins were in Devanagari and bore the name of the four Kalifs.

The stabilization of currency helped in Trade.

V.A. Smith observes "Sher Shah is entitled to the honour of establishing the reformed system of currency, which lasted throughout the Mughul period, was maintained by the East India Company upto 1835 and is the basis of the existing British Currency."

The stabilization of currency helped in trade.

ii) Roads and Sarais:

A serai was a well-fortified lodging.

One of the greatest achievements of Sher Shah in administration was his construction of roads and Sarais, connecting important parts of his empire with his capital. This was another important measure to promote trade and commerce.

Sher Shah repaired many old roads and constructed new ones also.

1) He restored the imperial Grand Trunk Road from the river Indus in the West to Sonargaon in Bengal.

2) He built a road which ran from Agra to Jodhpur and the Fort of Chittor.

3) Another road which ran from Agra to Burhanpur was built.

4) Another road from Lahore to Multan was built.

Trees were planted on both sides of the road. Wells were sunk at intervals.

Sher Shah constructed nearly 700 sarais on both sides of the road. Each Sarai had separate quarters for the Hindus and Muslims, a well and a mosque and was looked after by the Shiqdar.

Every sarai has several watchmen under a Shahana.

Many of these Serais developed into Market Towns, Qasbas was a place where peasants flocked to sell their produce.

Official known as the Daroga i - Dak Chowki was reponsible for the efficient working of this dept, it was not an innovation of Sher Shah but he revived the system.

Other direct reforms to boost trade and commerce:

Sher Shah abolished all these duties which were charged on merchandise at different places within the empire. He ordered for the collection of trade tax only at two places, one when the goods entered the territory of his empire and the other, where it was sold (at the time of sale).

Goods produced in Bengal or imported from outside paid custom duty at the border of Bengal and Bihar at Sikriga and goods coming from the West and Central Asia paid custom duty at Indus.

This encouraged trade and commerce.

Shen Shah made local village headmen (muqaddams) and Zamindars responsible for any loss that the merchants suffered on the roads. The Zamindars had to find the lost goods or else they would be severely punished. Thus in this way Sher Shah protected the prosperity of the traders.

Police System.

Sher Shah reestablished law and order across the length and breadth of his empire. He dealt with zamindars who refused to pay revenue, or disobeyed orders.

There was no separate department of police at that time. The local officers were held responsible for maintaining law and order. Incase the offender was not detected the less was made up by the Iocal officials.

The Shiqar-i-Shiqdaran in the Sarkars (district further divided into Parganas) and the Shiqdaran in the Pargana had to maintain law and order. ln the villages the headman performed this function.

The law and the enforcement were severe but successful.

Elliot has remarked "In the time of Sher Shah, an old woman might place a basket of ornaments on her head and go on a journey"

Judicial System:

Sher Shah had high ideals of justice "Justice" said he is the most excellent or religious rites and it is approved both by the king of the infidels and the faithful" He did not spare oppressors whether they were high nobles, men of his own tribe or near relations.

The sultan was the highest judicial authority in the state. Next to him was the Chief Qazi who was the head of the Diwan-i-Quazat.

The cases concerning the revenue of civil cases were decided by Chief Munsif in Sarkars and by Munsifs /Amin in Parganas. While the criminal cases were decided by the Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and Shiqdar in their respective areas.

The criminal law was uniform, severe and offenders were punished by flogging, fines, imprisonments and even amputation of limbs. The punishment depended on the gravity of the crime.

In large towns Kotwals might have been appointed to look after police work.

Sher Shah expresses (also thought) "Justice does not consist in abstaining from oppression but in fair and honest dealing with men".

ARMY: Sher Shah realised the importance of an efficient military establishment. He invited Afghans from all parts of the country as well as from Afghanistan and gave them posts suitable to their status and ability. However, other Muslims and Hindus too were employed in the army. The army had a tribal base. The soldiers were under their immediate tribal chief who indeed owed their allegiance to Sher Shah. Sher Shah maintained a permanent standing army at the centre like Ala-ud-din Khilji. Sher Shah took personal interest in the recruitment, training, promotion, discipline, fixing of salaries and supply of arms, clothes etc. to his soldiers.

In order to reform the army and reduce corruption he revived the practice of Dagh (branding the horses) and Chehra (the descriptive rolls). As a result of these reforms much of the corruption was eliminated and the army became a powerful instrument of force. There was strict discipline in the army. He set up cantonments in different parts of the empire and a strong garrison was posted in each of them. He built a number of forts for the defence of his empire.

Intelligence Department: Sher Shah maintained a highly efficient espionage system. Spies were appointed at all important places and with all important officers. The spies were expected to inform the sultan of all important news immediately. The defaulters were severely punished. Two horses were kept at every sarai so that the news carriers could get fresh horses at short intervals to maintain speed. The success of Sher Shah's administration largely depended on the efficient organisation of his spy-system.

An Estimate of Sher Shah:

According to H.L.O. Garret "Few men have crowded more into the short space of five years than this able and conscientious man" Sher Shah is a remarkable figure in medieval Indian History. He was a brave general and a capable ruler". Sher Shah was something more than the capable leader of a horde of fierce Afghans" says V.A. Smith.

He had an excellent taste in architecture, manifested especially in the noble mausoleum at Sesseram in Bihar which he prepared for himself.

Sher Shah was tolerant towards his Hindu subjects in general and allowed them to perform their religious rites, fairs and festivals. However, he did not abolish Jaziya tax but he encouraged intercaste marriages, appointed Hindus in his services and encouraged Sanskrit literature. He also maintained equal justice for all. Besides, Sher Shah adopted the principle that the duty of a monarch was not simply maintenance of peace and order but to attempt for the welfare of his subjects. He therefore consistently tried to do good to the peasants, traders, soldiers and all his subjects. That is why he could succeed in his administration in a short time.

W. Crooke says "Sher Shah was the first who attempted to found an Indian Empire broadly based upon the people's will...” Akbar also worked on this ideal. Ofcourse, Akbar improved all measures adopted by Sher Shah but it was Sher Shah who prepared the ground for the glorious reign of Akbar.

Dr.R.P. Tripathi writes "Had Sher Shah lived longer he might have don taken the wind out of Akbar's sails. He was undoubtedly one of Lot. the greatest statesmen among the Sultans of Delhi. Indeed, he had paved the way for the highly enlightened policy of Akbar and was the true precursor."

SUFI MOVEMENT

References : 1. K.N.Chitnis, Socio-Economic History of Medieval India, Chapter 7-

  2. R.C. MaJundar (Ed.), Hetory and Culture of the Indian People, Vol.VI, Pp.551 f and Vol.V pp.447 2.

Introduction: Sufism signifies mysticism in Islam. After the Ghaznavid conquest of Punjab, we find an important development among the Muslim community in India. This was the appearance of Sufi saints in India. The Sufi movement erupted in India around the 11th-12th century A.D. It was very popular during the Early Medieval Period. It continued to be important during the Later Medieval Period and it continued to be of significance till modern times.

Meaning of Sufism: One of the early Sufi saints in India, named, Shaikh al-Hujwairi, has tried to explain the origin of the word 'Sufi'. He said, that some claim that the word Sufi came from the word 'suf' or wool, because these saints wore wool. Some say it comes from the word 'saff' or row, i.e. people of the first rank. While others say the word comes from 'sufa' or bench; referring to some special companions of the Prophet. Still others derive it from "safa" or purity. However, most modern historians believe that the word 'sufi' is derived from the woollen garments that the early ascetics wore. But, Sufism goes beyond woollen garments.

Origins of Sufism: Sufism did not originate in India. The earliest manifestation of Sufism dates back to the 8th or 9th century A.D. when it appeared in Khorasan, especially in Balkh and also in Iraq and Egypt. In the 10th century A.D. Sufis were prominent in Persia. Thus, Sufism was widely propagated in the Islamic world before it came to India in the 11th-12th century A.D. But, it developed further on Indian soil.

Features of Sufism: In some ways the Sufi movement was a parallel movement in Islam to the Bhakti movement that was taking place in Hinduism at the same time. In India, Sufism came under the powerful influence of Buddhism and Hinduism. The Sufi mystics, when exposed to Buddhist and Hindu mysticism, unconsciously borrowed certain Indian elements and incorporated them into Sufism.

The three most outstanding features of Sufism were:

1. complete renunciation of worldliness

ii. Total surrender of oneself to God who is of the essence of love

iii. the unshakeable faith in the immanence of God

The Muslim mystics or Sufis were men of deep religious feelings who led ascetic lives and who laid emphasis on the practice of self-discipline as preparing the human soul/being for the knowledge of God or Union with God (Hagigat). They believed in a loving devotion to God and in the immanence of God. A further development in Sufism was the doctrine of "fana" or the temporary annihilation of the human self or human attributes through Union with God. (Unconditional love)

For the Sufis the relationship between God and the human being was not that of a master and servant but of beloved and lover. Love or 'ishq' is at the basis of Sufism. The Sufis were devout Muslims but while orthodox Muslim theology derived its sanctions from Koranic texts which were openly interpreted, the Sufis derive their theology by attaching a hidden significance to he Koranic texts. While the orthodoxy gave importance to external conduct and observance of rituals the Sufis emphasised inner purity and they believed that love is the only means of reaching God. The orthodox did not believe in any intermediary between the individual and God. The Sufi tradition gave importance to the spiritual teacher. To incite emotions of love towards God the Sufis introduced certain practices such as the use of romantic poetry, music and dance. They would dance and sing b the accompaniment of music, forgetting themselves in the intensity of devotional fervour. In the spiritual journey the guidance of a spiritual teacher (Pir, Murshid or Shaikh) was considered essential.

The Sufis believed in a chain of spiritual succession that came down from the Prophet Mohammed through Ali. Each link in this chain was the Pir or teacher. Each Pir would derive his authority from the symbols of office that he received from his predecessor and each would decide among his disciples who would be next in the chain. When his end was nearing the Pir nominated his successor and gave him all the symbols of his authority such as his cloak, prayer mat, sandals, rosary and walking stick etc. Others among his disciples who were advanced in mysticism would be given a succession certificate with permission to open their own orders if they so desired. This chain of succession is called a silsilah' or order.

The authority of the Pir was absolute over his disciples. The disciples surrendered themselves wholeheartedly to the teacher. Since the murshid is supposed to have reached a state of haqiqat, his position was semi divine. He was considered as the representative of God. In the course of time, Sufism developed some other popular practices such as the dargah system. Since the Pirs were almost semi-divinized, their graves assumed divinity/importance and miracles were attributed to them. Thus the dargahs of these saints became places of pilgrimage. Among the most famous of these dargahs from the early medieval times are the ones of Muin-ud-din Chisti at Ajmer and Nizam-ud-din Auliya at Delhi.

Important Sufi saints: Among the most important of the early Sufi saints were Shaikh al-Hujwairi who died in 1072, at Lahore. His tomb is a popular Muslim shrine to this day. He was the author of several works and can be called the founder of Sufism in India. His greatness was recognized by Muin-ud-din Chisti who became the greatest Sufi saint in India. The latter on his arrival in India went through a period of spiritual purification at the tomb of Shaikh al-Hujwairi.

Another early Sufi saint who lived in the 12th century was Sayyid Ahmed Sultan Sakhi Sarwar. His followers are called Sultanis are found among both Muslims and Hindus.

The greatest of the Sufi saints in India, who founded a long line of spiritual descendants that has endured even to the present time, was Muin-ud-din Chisti, who was a disciple of a Persian saint of Chisht. He came to Lahore from Ghazni in the mid-12th century and after visiting Delhi he finally settled down in Ajmer where he lies buried. His followers are known as the Chishtis.

Around the same time as iluin-ud-din lived another saint who was born in Multan. He was Baha-ud-din Zakariya. He founded a Sufi order in his own native town. His followers are called Suhrawardis.

The greatest Chishti saint in the 14th century was Nizam-ua-din Auliya. Among his followers were Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan. The latter was a favourite disciple who faithfully recorded the sayings of this saint in the work 'Fawaid-ul-Fuad'. From this it is clear that Auliya strongly believed that the love of God implied love of humanity, expressed through service. Hence, Sufis came to regard service to humanity, i.e. charity is a part of mysticism. He was one of the greatest Sufi saints of the Chishtiya order and a great spiritual force.

During the medieval period there were 6 main Sufi orders in India - Chishtiya, Suhra ardiya, Naqshbandiya, Firdausiya, Qadariya and Shattariya. Of these 6, the Chishtiya and Suhrawardiya were the most prominent in the Sultanate period. The Chishtis were mainly found in Delhi, Doab, Ajmer etc. Many prominent people were followers of the Chishti order, including the historian Barani and also Amir Khusrau.

The Suhrawardiya order was more popular in Multan and Sind. The Naqsbandiya and Qadariya gained prominence in the Mughal period. The Firdausiya and Shattariya orders were minor orders and were established in the latter part of the medieval period.

Impact:

i. More popular version of Islam

ii. It was a mass movement - with a huge following

iii. this movement had an impact not only among the Muslims but among the non-Muslims as well. Therefore, had an overall impact on Indian society.

iv. Certain practices were very popular - e.g. pilgrimage to dargahs.

V. Bridged the gulf between Islam and Hinduism

vi. Very appealing and easily understandable to Indian Muslims as it was influenced by Indian practices; therefore, was indirectly a cause for the Spread of Islam.

vii. Influenced the Bhakti movement.

viii. Puritans – taught people good virtues

Contibution: Although orthodox Islam frowned upon music, the acceptance of the sufi doctrines (in which music was often an integral part) by lslam made it possible for many Muslim ruler + nobleman to extend their patronage to this art.

Prof. A. L. Srivastava holds the opinion that ‘Though the Sufi movement might have in the long run exerted some influence on the contemporary Hindu religious practices, the Hindus in general had kept themselves aloof from the Sufis for pretty long’.

Sufism faced opposition during the 16"-17h centuries. The main strife was between the Shariat (Muslim law) and the Tarigat (Sufism). The custodians of the law, the Ulema, were actively hostile towards any religious movement which in their opinion was calculated to mar the purity of Islam. However, the more moderate school such as the Nagshbandi school of Sufism wanted to bridge the gulf, as far as possible, between orthodoxy and mysticism and to purge the Sufistic discipline of all beliefs and practices which Islam did not sanction. On the whole, during the Mughal period there was a decline in the more extreme forms of Sufism and the more moderate schools, like Nagshbandiya and Qadiriya, became more popular than the Chistiya sect which had enjoyed undisputed sway over the minds of the pious Muslims during the preceding period

Many Sufis acquired pre-eminence because of their association with the Mughal emperors. Shaikh Salim Chisti was the favourite saint of Akbar. Shah Jahan is said to have been an admirer of Mian Mir, while his son Dara Shukoh had Mulla Shah Badakshi as his spiritual preceptor.

Prof. Arberry describes Sufism as "the attempt" of the individual Muslim to realise their personal experience, the living presence of Allah."

VIJAYANAGARA LITERATURE

The Vijayanagara period saw the development, and patronage of Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu literature. Both religious of philosophical as well as secular works were written. Many poets and scholars received court patronage.

Sanskrit: Sanskrit was the language of higher culture throughout South India and a considerable volume of literature in its various branches arose due to the activity of scholars and poets.

Among the important kavyas written during. this period the earliest work was Madhuravijayam ('Conquest of Madurai') by Gangadevi, describing the achievements of Kumara Kampana, the son of Bukka I of Vijayanagara.  

Krishnadevaraya was a scholar and poet as well as a soldier and statesman. He wrote in both Sanskrit and Telugu. His. drama Jambavatikalvana is of a fairly high order.

In the field of the Advaita school of philosophical writings a great contribution was made by sage Vidyaranya. The famous Sarvadarsana-sangraha, by Sayana-Madhava tries to establish the superiority of Advaita by reviewing many of its rival philosophical systems.

Regarding the Visishtadvaita philosophy there were many important works that were composed just before the Vijayanagara period. Although Sri-Vaishnavism greatly prospered under the patronage of the Vijayanagara rulers of the second, third and fourth dynasties, and many authors wrote, there was little advance made in philosophical thought during this period.

Jayatirtha who was a contemporary of Vidyaranya was the greatest elucidator of the Dvalta philosophy of Madhvacharya. The next great name in the history of the DValta school was that of Vyasaraya, who was highly honoured by Krishnadevaraya. His works such as Tatparyandrika, Nyayometta and Tarka-tandava expounded the philosophy of his sect and presented arguments against rival philosophies.

Kannada:  Among the South Indian languages, after Tamil, Kannada is the oldest. The Jains, who had flourished in Karnataka had played an important role in the development of this language. During the Vijayanagara period the Jains were being gradually pushed out due to the rising influence. of various Saiva and Vaishnava schools. Yet they continued to write in Kannada on the lives of the tirthankaras and other holy persons.

After the Jains, the Virasaivas did the most for the development of Kannada Language and literature. They wrote many religious works in Kannada. They preferred the prose medium. The Lingayat or Virasalva literature of the Vijayanagara period falls under two heads - stories of reformers and devotees and expositions/ of doctrine. The Basava-purana of Bhimakavi was completed in the mid-14th century. It is on the Virasaiva reformer Basava and it describes him as an incarnation of Nandi, especially sent to re-establish the Virasaiva faith, on earth.

In the literature of the Virasaiva doctrine, several works were produced under Devaraya II who had two staunch Virasaiva ministers. One was Lukkana, who wrote Siva-tattva-cintamani, a treatise on thelteachings and rites of this sect. (The-minister-Jakkanarya-was-aloo-a great writer on Virasaivis in Kannada)

Popular songs by the dasas (mendicant singers) was another form of literature in Kannada during this period. These Vaishnava singers drew inspiration from Madhvacharya and Vyasaraya. Purandaradasa was the earliest, the most famous and the most prolific of these singers. He lived many years in the city of Vijayanagara.

Telugu: The reign of Krishnadevaraya marks the golden age of Telugu literature. The king himself was a distinguished Telugu writer. His Amuktamalyada is one of the five great kavyas in Telugu. Traditionally it is held that there were eight great Telugu writers in the court of Krishnadevaraya. 'hey are known as the Ashtadiggajas (the Eight Elephants of the Quarters). Among them the greatest was Allasani Peddana, on whom the monarch conferred the title of "Andhrakavitapitamaha" (Grandfather of Telugu poetry). His Manucarita is dedicated to Krishnadevaraya, who marked his appreciation for the poem by personally carrying the palanquin of Peddana.

Nandi Timmana, the second great Telugu poet of Krishnadevaraya's court, was the author of Parijatapaharana, which elaborates a beautiful verse an incident in Lord Krishna's life when he tries to appease his wife Satyabhama. In some ways the most interesting figure of the time was Tenali Ramakrishna, who started his career under Krishnadevraya but who lived on long after this monarch. Posterity remembers him more as a court jester who played many practical jokes on high-placed persons including the monarch. But he was also a talented poet and his Panduranga Mahatmya is one of the five great kavyas of Telugu.

Tamil: The heyday of Tamil literature was in the pre-Vijayanagara age. Though the Vijayanagara rulers were either Kannadigas or Telugus and most of their feudatories in the far south as far as Madurai were mostly Telugus, who had a decided preference for Sanskrit and Telugu, there was no setback to Tamil literary activity.

Among the many great Tamil writers of this age, a few deserve special mention. Among them are Arunagirinatha, author of Tiruppugal, a contemporary of Devaraya II and Haridasa, a Vaishnava poet in the court of Krishnadevaraya.

SOCIAL LIFE IN VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

Reference:  T.V.Mahalingam, Administration and Social Life under Vilavanagar, Part. Il.

1. The People: From the economic point of view the population of the Empire may be broadly divided into two distinct groups, the consumers and the producers. Among the consumers, can be included the king and the court, the nobles and high officers. The learned men, scholars, the ascetics and mendicants and the trading community and the entertainers also belong to this category. The people who constituted the producing classes may be grouped under two broad occupations, agriculture and industries.

A large majority of the population was engaged on land, either cultivating the land or rearing cattle or sheep. Among those who followed an industrial occupation were artisans such as black-smiths, gold-smiths, brass-smiths, carpenters and idol makers, the weavers and oil-pressers. The other important professionals were the potters, toddy drawers and leather workers. Craftsmanship was usually hereditary.

One of the most, respected communities in the Vijayanagar Society was that of the brahmins. They were found in almost every walk of life. A few of them were priests and were attached to temples, Others were owners of land, some were engaged in trade, and many were active administrators and even generals.

Regarding the status of women in the Empire, it would be convenient to study them under two groups, viz. family women and courtesans. Family women seldom took part in social gatherings. Little has been written about them by the foreign travellers, for they were very retiring by nature. The royal harem has attracted the attention of many foreign travellers. The Vijayanagara kings had large harems. But though it was large, only a few in it were the queens. Many served as hand-maidens, women guards, servants etc. The courtesans can be divided into two group one living independently in the capital city and other important centres and taking part in social functions, and the other the dancing girls who were attached to the temples.

The first category played an important role in court rituals such as the Mahanavami. Many of them were enormously wealthy. These women enjoyed special privileges. They were allowed to enter even in the presence of the wives of the king and they even chewed betel with them. They were allowed to chew betel even in the presence of the king. The temple dancers danced and sang before the deities daily at specified times. They were generally remuneratéd from temple funds.

There is evidence to believe that the institution of slavery was prevalent in the Empire.

2. Social institutions: Regarding marriage, although the kings and high dignitaries might were polygamous, the bulk of the Hindu population was generally monogamous. The dowry system was prevalent, but then appears to have been much resentment against it was prevalent, but there appears to have been much resentment against it.

Another important social practice in the Vijayanagar days was sati.  The performance of self-immolation, which has been described in detail by many of the foreign visitors to the Empire, was voluntary, though the practice was wide-spread and popular. The performance of sati was commemorated by the erection of satikals on which are seen the sculptured representations of the women who committed sati.

3. Religion: The Vijayanagara empire was a Hindu empire and religion played an important part in the life of the people and their rulers. Among the religious groups in the Empire the Smartas and the Saivas constituted a large majority. Among the Saivas there were the Kalamukhas, the Virasaivas and the Tamil Salvas. Among the Vaishnava sects, Sri-Vaishnavis gained in popularity, especially in the 16th century. The Vijayanagara rulers of the second, third and fourth dynasty were Vaishnavas, unlike the Sangamas who had been Saivas.

The Madhvas were also widely spread in the Empire. The great Madhva saint Vyasarya was the guru of Krishna-devaraya. From the 16th century onwards the Haridasa sect of Vaishnava poet-saints gained a large following, especially in Karntaka.

Among the non-Hindu religions within the Empire, Jainism was the most important. It received patronage and protection from the Vijayanagara rulers. For instance, when in 1368 there arose a quarrel between the Jains and Sri-Vaishnavas, Bukka I summoned the leaders of the two sects and brought about a reconciliation. However, from the 15th century onwards this religion suffered a decline.

Buddhism had suffered a decline before the foundation of the Empire, but it is possible that there were Some Buddhists still existant. Muslims began to be found in South India during this period. Both within the capital city and elsewhere there is evidence of Muslim presence at least from the early 15th century onwards. The Christians, too, began to make their appearance. But the activities of the Christian missionaries were more prominent during the Aravidu and the Nayaka periods.

The temple was an important socio-religious institution. It. was not merely a place of worship; it filled a large place in the cultural and socio-economic life of the people. For its construction and maintenance offered employment to numerous architects and craftsmen. The making of icons in metal and stone gave scope to the talents of the best sculptors. The daily routine, especially of the larger temples, gave constant employment to numbers of priests, singers, musicians, dancing-girls, florists, cooks, and many other classes of servants. The periodical festivals were occasions marked by fairs and every other form of popular entertainment. The large endowments in land and cash tended to make it landlord and a banker. The practice of decorating images with numerous jewels encouraged the jeweler’s art to a considerable extent.

Another important institution in the Vijayanagara Empire was the matha or monastery. They afforded shelter to resident as well as itinerant monks and played a significant part in the religious life of the times. They also functioned as centres of learning and education. Often they also served as charitable centres. Pilgrimages to holy places within the Empire were popular with both the rulers and the people. The following were the important pilgrimage centers Hampi, Chidambaram, Kanchi, Tirupati, Srirangam, Rameshwaram, etc.

4. Education and Learning: The government without interfering very much with the educational system that prevailed in the country, encouraged education by patronising scholars in different branches of knowledge. Each village of small group of villages had a school with a teacher, who taught the 3 Rs to the children. Eminent pandits and scholars conducted small schools of their om and trained students in the study of the Vedas and allied literature. Apart from such private initiative, public institutions like the matha and the temple devoted themselves to the popularisation of education. The mathas served as educational institutions, while the temples indirectly promoted learning by arranging for the recitation of the Vedas and the prabandhas. The State made endowments for the study of certain subjects by making liberal grants to scholars

5. Festivals: The temples celebrated an elaborate round of rituals and festivals. Besides the festivals in the temples, a number of festivals were celebrated by the people at large. Some of these have been noted in the accounts of the foreign visitors. Nicolo Conti, who visited the Empire in the early 15th century, describes four festivals, which have been identified by Robert Sewell, B. A. Saletore etc. as the New Year, Dipavali, Mahanavami and Holi. Mahanavami was definitely the most popular festival celebrated in the capital and the court. Although primarily a religious festival, the Mahanavani celebration at the court was a grand public ritual that had political as well as socio-economic and military overtones.

6. Amusements: One of the games largely participated in by the people high and low was wrestling. Hunting afforded another pastime for the rulers as well as to the ruled. Horse riding, too, was popular. Apart from these games, the theatre, dance and music provided great entertainment. Dance was greatly encouraged in the Vijayanagara court. Allied to dance was the kolattam or stick play. Music also received great encouragement, both vocal and instrumental.

7. Housing: The nobility of VIjayanagar lived in fully equipped and well provided houses. The middle classes appear to have Iived in smaller houses. But the poorer classes lived in small thatched and straw houses.

8. Food: The food crops grown in the Vijayanagara Empire were paddy, millets, and other grains including wheat, beans and pulses, of different kinds etc. Though meat seems to have been used by some people, it appears, that all did not use It. The brahmins, Jains and Lingayats were vegetarian. The betel leaf, taken along with it was used on all ceremonial functions to visitors.

9. Clothes: The kings and the wealthy men wore silk clothes of fine material. A cap or a turban were also worn. A type of shirt was also common. Wool was very little used. Cotton was used by the common people. Footwear was also used by the upper classes.

The women who belonged to the higher classes in the society wore rich clothes. Costly ornaments were worn by both men and women. Various types of perfumes, were also in use.

10. Painting: Important centers of painting were Hampi, Lepakshi, Anagundi and Kancheepmahth. Religious themes from Ramayana and Mahabharata and Vishnupurana.

11. Secular Buildings: Archaeological remains being fragmentary not much is known about secular buildings of Vijayanagara. Of these King’s Audience Hall seems to have been part of a massive building. It is elevated above other buildings in the citadel. The other important structure is the throne platform. Other structures include elephant stables, lotas mahal and watch towers of Zanana.

CAUSES OF MAHMUD’S INVASIONS

The chief motive of Mahmud’s invasion in India was the desire to secure its wealth. He had to suffer heavy losses in both men and money in the course of his victories. To satisfy his needs in wealth he decided to invade India. His main consideration in invading India was the money he needed for building a large central Asian Empire which could be easily available in India.

2.    Being a capable military leader, he also knew that it would be much easier to defeat his Central Asian enemies by a proper use of elephants. He thus wanted to invade India to secure a strong contingent of war elephants.

3.    Many Muslim traders and travelers had visited India before his time and some had left behind valuable topographical information in their diaries which would facilitate his work of conquest. Peshawar which commanded entry into India was already in his possession and there was less possibility of any strong opposition from the side of Jayapala, the master of the frontier region, because he had differed successive defeats at the hands of Turks. Thus the invasion of India was not only militarily and financially profitable, but it was also easy to secure victory by raising the cry of Jihad and by exploiting the military weakness and the political disunity of Indian rulers.

4.    Some historians believe that Mahmuds chief objective was to spread Islam in India and to break the idols of the nonbelievers. While other historians, do not agree with the former statement, they say that by plundering the innocent people Mahmud had rendered no service to his religion. Mahmud was a conqueror who plundered and destroyed temples only because of their untold wealth.  

5.    Political objective was also another reason for Mahmud’s invasions. This is why he annexed Punjab to his Empire. But if Mahmud had desired to establish his Indian Empire, he could do so very easily because he had conquered almost all the rulers of North India.

6.    It is stated that when the Khalifa appointed Mahmud as lieutenant, he asked him to lead every year an expedition against India, so Mahmud led expeditions against India.

7.    Also, on the eve of Mahmud’s invasion, India was politically weak and divided. There was no strong Central Government under whose banner the people could be. Wars of successions and quick dynastic changes contributed to political decline as well.

Consequences of Invasions: Mahmud’s invasions did not create significant results for it was never his aim to conquer India. His only aim was to plunder India’s immense wealth. He made no permanent conquests.

1.    He coveted only the wealth accumulated in the Indian cities and had a reputation of being an idol breaker. He used the wealth for the maintenance of a large army and employed it for the protection and extension of his Central Asian possessions. Without wealth, it would not have been possible for him to wage continuous warfare.

2.    He made use of the newly acquired wealth for the promotion of art and learning. He patronized many men of letters in his court. He built magnificent buildings in Ghazni.

3.    He secured from India fine war elephants and skilled drivers which he used in his Central Asian Wars.

4.    He carried from India also reputed craftsmen who by their artistic creation won for him high reputation in the contemporary Muslim world.

5.    He permanently occupied Multan and Punjab which not only furnished a rich annual tribute but also provided an asylum to his successors.

6.    Indians on the other hand suffered heavily. His invasions destroyed some Hindu dynasties, while others were so badly shaken that they could not survive the shock. Thousands of brave Indian soldiers were killed in these invasions which did irreparable damage to the Indian military power.

7.    As the Indians lost almost every battle in this series of invasions, the weakness of India’s military power became exposed to the outside world. Mahmud carried enormous wealth and raised to the ground countless temples. The famous Somnath Temple at Kathiawar was one such temple. In this way his invasions deprived India of her immense wealth and caused irreparable damage to her art and culture

8.    Mahmud converted several of the Hindus to Islam by force, which considerably swelled the number of the Muslims in India.

9.    But the success of the Turks had no effect on the political disunity of the system of government of Indian princes. The military + administrative weakness in the time of Mahmud of Ghazni continued to exist even at this time of Muhammad Ghoris invasions.

Sultan Mahmud appeared in India as a ruthless invader whose only interest was to rob the country of its wealth. Many flourishing cities of India were raised to the ground. So were the temples which were great works of art. Death + desolation marked the Hail of Mahmud and his army.

He is still remembered as a breaker of idols + a conqueror with an unbounded lust for wealth. Mahmud's expeditions to India were considered as Jihad by his court historian 'Utbi’. By virtue of his military genius he built up his empire which extended from Iraq + the Caspian sea to the Ganga.  Mahmud emulated the Khalifas of Baghdad in many ways, like them he became a patron of the arts + letters. However, Mahmud's expeditions to India were promoted both by his lust for plunder as well as his zeal to spread Islam.

MAHMUD GHAZNI

 

SR.NO	YEAR
1	1000 AD	Frontier Forts
2	1000-01 AD	Against Hindushahi ruler Jayapala
3	1004-05 AD	Against rulers of Bhatiya
4	1005-06 AD	In Multan against Fateh ruler of Daud
5	1007 – 08 AD	Against Nawab Shah
6	1008-09 AD	Against Anandpala
7	1009-10 AD	Narayanpur
8	1010- 11 AD	Multan
9	1012-13 AD	Thaneshwar
10	1013-14 AD	Nandana – capital of Anandpala – succeeded by son Trilochanpala
11	1015-16 AD	Kashmir
12	1018-19 AD	Gangetic Valley – Mathura – Kanauj
13	1019-20 AD	Chandella
14	1020-21 AD	Gwalior and Kalinjar
15	1021-22 AD	Lahore and Punjab annexed
16	1025-26 AD	Somnath
17	1026 -27 AD	Against Jats

 

Lifespan 997-1030 AD

In 998 AD Mahmud Ghazni ascended the throne of Ghazni. He was a slave of Subuktagin and had accompanied him during his Indian campaigns. He had received military training in early childhood. Mahmud was recognized as the rightful ruler of Ghazni and Khorasan by the Caliph of Baghdad. He conducted as many as 17 expeditions into Hindusthan. He had a clear knowledge about Indian topography from Muslim traders and travellers who carried information about India. Mahmud did not stay on in Hindusthan. The aim of his invasion was not conquest, but the acquisition of loot and fresh recruits for the army.

Mahmuds first invasion was against the Hindushahi ruler of Peshawar and Punjab. The Muslim rulers of Multan and Jayapala joined hands against Mahmud. In 1001 AD. Jayapala was defeated and he committed suicide. His son Anandpala continued the struggle against Mahmud. In 1008-09 near Peshawar, in a decisive battle, Anandpala was defeated and Mahmud brought Multan and Punjab under his contol.

In 1004 Mahmud invaded Vhira and amassed a large fortune from the temples there.

In 1006 he invaded the Shia kingdom Multan ruled by Fateh Daud and defeated the combined forces of Fateh Daud and Anandpala.

The death of Amandpala in 1012 weakened the resistance of the Hindushahi kingdom. With the death of Bhimpala in 1026, the Hindushahi kingdom came to an end.

In 1009 Manmud attacked Narayan II (Alwar). In 1014 Thaneshwar. In 1018 he plundered Mathura and desecrated the temple there. This was followed by the plunder of Kanauj and the accumulation of more wealth.

In 1022, Mahmud returned to Ghazni. Lahore, Gwalior and Kalinga became part of his Indian empire. The last campaign of Mahmud was in 1025-26, when he invaded Gujarat and destroyed the Somnath Temple. This campaign had been planned in detail when he reached Anhilwara. Raja Bhim Deo fled in terror. Mahmud then reached Somnath were 1000 priests had gathered to pray for the safety of the holy shrine. Mahmud destroyed the idol and carried it along with several precious things to Ghazni. Prayers could not save the idol from the iconoclast. The sack of Somnath made Mahmud a hero in the eyes of his people. He became a champion of the faith.

In 1027, he punished the Jats in his last raid.

In 1030, Mahmud died at Ghazni and left behind him a large empire and immense wealth.

Reasons for success:

a.    Weakness of the Hindu rulers

b.    Superior cavalry

c.     Better weapons

d.    Efficient spy system

e.    The concept of holy war or Jihad

According to Lane Poole – ‘Mahmud left his dominion so ill knitted that they began to fall asunder as soon as he was no longer alive to guard them by his vigilant activity”.

Estimate:

Mahmud was one of the greatest Muslim kings of Asia. He ruled over a dominion which extended from Iraq and Caspian Sea to the Ganges. His empire was more extensive than even the Caliphs of Baghdad. It was his courage as a soldier and success as a commander which made this possible. He ranks as one of the most successful generals of the world.

He was an uneducated but cultured person and a patron of scholarship and art. He invited scholars and artists to his empire even from foreign countries. He engaged them in beautifying Ghazni. In this time, Ghazni became not only a beautiful city of the East, but also the center of Islamic scholarship. Among the topmost literary persons who thronged the royal court of Ghazni was Firdausi Alberuni. He founded a University in Ghazni.

Administration – He was a fanatic Sunni Muslim. He was intolerant of not only Hindu but also of the Shias. He was given the title of ‘quizi’ which means ‘slayer of infidels’. He was a champion of Islam and the destroyer of images. According to professor Mohammad Habib, ‘Mahmud’s expeditions to India were however not promoted because of his religious fanaticism, but because of his religious fanaticism, but because of his love of plunder’.

As far as India was concerned, Mahmud was never a ruler of India. He never wanted to administer the provinces he conquered. In all his invasions, he looted, destroyed and took along with him the wealth of Hindu temples and forced lakhs of people to accept Islam.

Mahmud broke up the economic and military strength of Indians and also their morale to resist Muslim invaders. Therefore as professor S. R. Sharma said, ‘he was an angel to his people’. If he did anything, it was not for all the people but a select class (Sunnis) and for personal glorification.

The greatest achievement of Mahmud as far as India was concerned was the destruction of the Hindu Shahi kingdom of Afghanistan. He paved the way for the conquest of Afghanistan and India by future Muslims.

Top of Form