HISTORY | SCOPE OF HISTORY

 What is history? Explain its scope.

Subject matter of History – The scope of a subject means the number of matter or things covered for a satisfactory knowledge of a chosen subject. Usually for any subject that we study the purpose is clearly defined. Thus, in various disciplines, university or boards of education determine the syllabus. This is a routine program for studying a subject. We cannot limit our alteration to educational practice alone. We must specify topics for discussion and have to allow discussion on matters related to the specified topics also. At higher levels we must consider the spectrum of views on that matter. The scope of the subject under study is not determined arbitrarily. History is a social science and like all social sciences research is being carried out. More and more areas of knowledge are being added. They in turn stimulate further inquiry. It would be instructive to look at history in this perspective.

Subject matter of history as envisaged by historians and philosophers of history is of a complex character. Historians want to reconstruct the past and put it in a form of a story. Philosophers of history want to detect the hidden plan behind the course of History. Now historians and philosophers cannot be segregated, we therefore have to take a comprehensive view of the subject matter of history that is the scope of history.

Main feature of the scope of history

The scope of historical study depends upon the subject matter of inquiry of the past events.

The scope of history is determined by the activities, experiences, and thoughts of men at different times in the past.

The scope depends upon the nature of inquiry of the past such as social, economic, political or other kinds of inquiry. Thus, if we want to know a single aspect of the Quit India Movement of 1942 say economic aspect, its scope is narrower than a general assessment of the movement from different angles.

If we intend to study universal history of the progress of mankind, it is greater in extent than a local or a national history.

Similarly, when we think about world history, the time factor makes it necessary to define what exactly we want to study. If we simply say human activities it would mean a never ending search as human activities from the beginning to our days implies scope beyond our human capacities.

Just as the present has innumerable matters for consideration, the past which for some generations in the past was a living present and as such they dealt with many known and unknown matters. The scope of our study in general matters would be both impossible and end in a cloud. We have therefore to fix our attention on some points.

Limitations of the scope

When we say history is a study of man’s activities in time, the scope of our inquiry is limited by the time factor. If we do not fix the time of what happened in the past it would be a fantasy. The scope of history is limited by our knowledge of chronological details. Man appeared on this planet several million years ago but the recorded history of his activities cannot be pushed back beyond five thousand years. Those records do not give us a clear idea of his activities in civilized societies.

Human activities – History in the real sense of the term began when the Greek Statesman – Warrior Herodotus wrote about Greco Persian War in the fifth century BC. This was the first history of its kind in the world and the beginning of ‘history’ is thus reckoned from that time. the scope of history of the world is thus limited to the history of mans social activities to a few thousand years. The activities of men before the historical period, that is before fifth century BC is enveloped in the mist of ignorance.

 

Geographical factor – When we talk about world history, we actually refer to few places on the earth. As everybody knows more than half the surface of the earth is covered by water. Out of the remaining part a sizable surface is occupied by hills, deserts, mountains and rivers, ice, etc. Thus, the habitable portion of the earth is limited. Further, mans civilizations grew in a few favorable lands. The scope of history is thus limited.

Time factor – The scope of history cannot be rigidly fixed at any time. suppose today we say history covers life of man and his activities in civilized societies, a few years later on centuries after our time, historians would say history is concerned with activities and experiences of men and women only in highly developed societies or they may say it is confined only to the societies which are now developing.

Prevailing conception of history – Just as the scope of history is limited by time, it is limited by the prevailing conception of history at a given time. in communist countries, the conception of history is different from those of democratic countries or countries under despotic rule. Thus, scope of historical inquiry responds to the necessity of knowing the truth about certain people at certain time.

Stages in the Expansion of Historical Vision

Herodotus ‘the father of Secular History’ wrote his account of the Greco-Persian War and provided very useful information of contemporary Greece. His book started writing of history in the Western world. His purpose in writing the narrative was to see that glorious deeds of the heroes of the war were not forgotten by the subsequent generations. The scope of history outlined by him was the heroic deeds of Greek warriors. The subsequent Greek and Roman writers slightly modified the pattern.

Livy, the Roman historian of the first century BC. Wrote the history of rome with a wider view of describing the lives of men who lived in the Roman Empire. The scope of history was thus expanded.

The noteworthy feature of Greco-Roman histories was the humanistic approach that the writers adopted. This was abandoned in the early medieval period under the influence of Christian theology.

The scope of history during the Middle Ages was undefined as the writers believed that man’s activities were directed by Divine Providence. The Christian doctrines however promoted periodization of history and also a universal approach. Renaissance of the fifteenth century once again brought man at the center of the world. The period of the Enlightenment limited the scope of history only to the recent past which they regarded as a period of rational activity. The Romanticists expanded their vision and began the study of the past ages.

The scope of history from the eighteenth century under the inspiration from Rousseau’s ‘Social Contract’ made great strides int eh production of historical literature. The researchers of the nineteenth century and the ambitious projects of the Annales and Subaltern historians have included many matters coved by other social sciences and total history of men. H. G. Wells ‘Outline of World History’ (1920) started the movement and Will Durant wrote about world civilizations.

Scope of Historical Methods and Limitations

The main task of a historian is to show what man is, as is revealed through the evidence of his activities and experiences in the past. He depends upon the surviving evidence of the past as it was. The first problem that determines the scope of this inquiry is the relics and traces of the past in some form or the other. Man’s written records of his activities and experiences are of recent origin but the unwritten records of the past represented by artifacts and folklore are incalculable. Our only sources of information are written records and archaeological remains. The methods of history thus have to be adjusted according to the availability of these sources which would lead to an adequate knowledge of the events.

The scope of historical knowledge is expanded by new forms of evidence or by new ways of utilizing the old sources. The main sources of information of the past ages were limited to texts and chronicles. The decoding of the Harappan script or such other hitherto unknown picture symbols of ancient records may throw much light on the unknown history of the most ancient civilization of Africa, Asia and South America.

A new way of looking at old literature in oral or written forms also expands our vision of history. Hindu Mythology was looked upon by educated as childish fantasies. They were examined by Pargiter and Winternitz and they showed that a true picture of real social life of the ancient Indian people could be reconstructed from the indirect and unintentional narratives of those myths.

Limitation on the method are many. Historical knowledge is an indirect and inferential knowledge from the fragments of surviving evidence. The famous libraries of Nalanda University and the Chinese libraries in Beijing and other places were destroyed by vandals. Some of the secret documents were either seized by the conquerors or disappeared mysteriously. There are political and other considerations which suppress the truth which cannot be discovered at least at present. However, new techniques to squeeze truth out of the available sources or new discoveries will expand the vision of history.

New Science and New History

The eighteenth century station philosopher, G. B. Vico, was the first thinker of his time who widened the scope of history and claimed validity for historical knowledge. He dismissed Rene Descartes view that historical knowledge was not possible. The past is dead and gone, how could one reconstruct it as it actually was? Vicos reasoning was that ‘Man can know what man has done’ and on this basis has knowledge of the past and would be valid if he possesses the facts of the past. From his principle of ‘Venum Factom’ (knowledge of thing made by the maker) he maintained that, the systems of language, customs, laws, government and other institutions that is though of history represent the genesis and development of human societies and their institutions. He showed how the science of language i.e., philosophy, could help not only to reconstruct the history of the past but also provide means of verification of the facts narrated orally or in writing. He wanted to instill a strict discipline in collection and interpretation of documents and make history an autonomous science a ‘New Science’.

Vico expanded the vision of history and ensured the validity of the narrative by an intelligent and imaginative use of language, customs, laws, and institutions of the time under study. The twentieth century thinkers Marc Bloch and Fernand Braudel put forward the concept of ‘New History’. This expanded the scope in every respect. They painted out that there exists at all times, elements which are not ‘conscious’ or visible in the social development and this is known as unconscious history. Historians have to look beyond the events that are ‘conscious’ or appear on the surface. A mass of unknown and formless elements like climate of opinion influence the thoughts and activities of man. These elements have to be understood. The historical situation is full of such unconscious or unseen elements and they spring on the surface or on the conscious suddenly. For e.g., the unrest among workers or peasants breaks out unexpectedly at times. The scope of new history is to know the total history of man. In the twentieth century another view of history that is the subaltern view adds one more dimension. It is the study of masses of people who are of little or no consequence in business, political and intellectual fields.

THE GUPTA PERIOD

 Provincial administration – The Guptas followed a highly de-centralized system of administering the provinces since their empire was so large. Thus, the empire was divided into several provinces called Vishayas, each headed by a Vishayapati. He was assisted by 4 ministers who were in charge of merchants, traders, artisans and clerks. Together they formed the provincial council i.e., the Adhikarana. Besides these ministers, a number of other officials helped in local administration. These included the village headmen and council (Gramika), collectors of tolls and custom’s duties, record writers (Lekhakas) etc. Some provinces were headed by princes of the royal family and the Yuvraja always administered one province for experience.

The villages were administered by the Headman and a council of elders. Many villages together formed a Pethaka or Santhaka. Several of these together were called a Vithi and many Vithis formed a Vishaya. Cities of the Gupta empire were administered by the Nagarakashaha who was responsible to the Vishayaati. Important cities included Magadha, Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Ujjain.

The Gupta Economy

The Gupta period was called the Golden Age not only because of its cultural development, but also because of its prosperity. The political stability provided by the Gupta rulers led to a well-developed economy which in turn provided the funds for literature, architecture, etc. Agriculture, industry, and trade were the chief areas of the economy.

Agriculture remained the predominant occupation but did not contribute to the Gupta economy as extensively as trade and industry. Traditional methods of cultivation continued and according to Varahmihira, farmers relied on rainfall for irrigation. Thus, in years of poor monsoon, the harvest was substantially reduced.

Farmers harvested two crops. They grew a variety of crops such as wheat, rice, pulses, medicinal herbs, vegetables and fruits. Each farmer’s area of cultivation was demarcated though some villages cultivated and paid taxes collectively. Land tax was moderate and usually paid in kind.

Industry – goods were produced in villages and cities by artisans. These were traded in local bazaars as well as exported to different areas. Artisans of a particular skill usually formed their own guild and hence there were weaver’s guilds, jeweler’s guilds, etc. Textiles, cotton and silk, iron works, pottery, jewelry, embroidery, etc., were the main industrial products.

Trade and commerce – Trade was both inland and foreign. Goods were traded between villages and between villages and cities. Goods coming to the cities were also exported while imports found their way from the cities to smaller towns and villages. Foreign trade was by land and sea. The passes of the north and the silk route were used for trade with China, Persia and Europe. Sea trade was well developed. Kalyan, Chaul, Broach and Cambay were the main Gupta ports though export was also conducted through the Coromandel and Malabar coasts. The Gupta empire had trade links with Arabia, the East Coast of Africa, the Roman Empire, Ceylon, Malay and South East Asia. The main items of export were textiles, salt, spices and gemstones, while gold, silver, coins, coral, dates and horses were imported.

The guild system was the backbone of trade and commerce in the Gupta period. They functioned like chambers of commerce and each type of artisan, banker and merchant had their own guild. Each guild had a fixed hierarchy, they organized their members, improved their bargaining power and provided banking facilities to their members. Whenever a guild member sent a consignment of goods or a letter or signed an agreement, it was accompanied by the seat of the individual and the guild. If a particular trade was declining in an area, the entire guild would migrate to another place.

The guilds had specific rules and regulations to govern its members and trade practices. Thus, commercial crimes and cheating were almost unheard of in the Gupta period. Members of the guild had to abide by its rules and if the individual practiced two trades of skills, he could only belong to one guild. President and an executive committee of 4 or 5 members. Since they provided security to the artisans and traders and fostered industry through their banking activities, the Guptas encouraged the guilds and gave them a fair degree of autonomy. In time these guilds flourished, and they began patronizing temples, architecture, public works, etc.

According to various sources, the standard of living in the Gupta Empire was good as basic commodities were always available at affordable prices. The cities were the most prosperous and people enjoyed public amenities and cultural activities.

Society – The Gupta Age marked the revival of Brahmanical Hinduism. Thus, many social practices and institutions were based on Hinduism. The caste system continued and Brahmins enjoyed many privileges which were protected by the Guptas who themselves were Brahmins. Yet, social mobility did occur since people change their professions and even Shudras became traders. But the lowest castes of people could change their professions and even Shudras became traders. But the lowest castes of Untouchables faced tremendous discrimination and were forced to live outside villages and towns.

Women during this age were dependent on their families. They were married at early ages and did not have much to say in the choice of husband. Once married, she was restricted to the household duties. The practices of Sati and polygamy were increasingly popular especially among the upper castes. Widows were discouraged form remarrying. Education and training in the arts was given to girls from richer families but they were taught at home. Intermarriage between castes was permitted and interracial marriages were also frequent. The joint family system became stronger during this period but widows and daughters had no rights to property.

The diet of the people was vegetarian and non-vegetarian, though the Brahmins looked down upon meat eating. Pan chewing and foreign wines also became popular. Garments included dhoti-kurta for men, to which the Scythians added an overcoat. Women began to drape long pieces of cloth around them which developed into the sari. Jewelry was elaborate and popular with both men and women. Richer women also used cosmetics like kajal and perfumes and spent hours making elaborate hairstyles. Dice games and chess were popular pastimes while animal fights, drama, dancing and music provided environment.

Cultural developments

The Gupta Age was one of the most culturally productive eras of India. It saw tremendous growth in sculpture, architecture, painting, minting of coins and literature.

Sculpture – The Gandhara School of Art reached its peak during this age and a vast number of sculptures were created synthesizing elements from Greek, Roman, Persian, Chinese and Indian styles. Buddhism and images of Buddha were the most common theme while the material for the sculptures was black stone. Later, this style of sculpture was also used for stone and metal work.

Architecture – Between the 1^st and 5^th centuries AD, a number of monasteries were built in the Gandhara style. They usually consisted of living quarters for the monks and a stupa. These were decorated with images of Buddha and stories from the Buddhist teachings.

Painting – Buddhism not only influenced sculpture and architecture, but also inspired the wall paintings of Ajanta caves. Monks leveled, plasteed and then painted ‘frescoes’ telling stories of human existence and Buddhism. These paintings that include animals, humans and floral designs were executed with natural dyes and colors which have remained fresh and vibrant through the centuries.

Coinage – Under the Guptas the technique of coinage became a fine art. The Guptas issued coins in gold, silver, and coper with a variety of designs. Chandragupta I issued coins featuring his Queen Kumaradevi’s name along with his. Samudragupta issued a large variety of coins being the title Vikramanka. In his military coins he is shown holding a bow and arrow, a battle axe or trampling a tiger. Other coins depict hism playing musical instruments like the veena, or performing the Ashwamedh sacrifice. Chandragupta II also issued many coins using the title of Vikramaditya. His silver coins used the same imprint as that used in the western satraps along with the Gupta symbol. He was shown killing a lion, holding a sword, etc. His gold coins are considered even more sophisticated in design and finish than the other Guptas. Besides the king, Gupta coins usually bore the image of a goddess on the other surface while Chandragupta II introduced the Garuda (vehicle of Vishnu), perhaps signifying the rise of Vaishnavite Hinduism.

Literature – The greatest development during the Gupta Age was in the field of literature. Sanskrit was the chief language. Education was also developing with Nalanda becoming a world famous center for scholars. The kings, especially Samudragupta and Chandragupta II patronized scholars and writers.

Harisena was an eminent poet and the biographer of Samudragupta. His poem engraved on the Allahabad Prashasti is the chief source of information on Samudragupta. Kalidas became the greatest writer of the age with timeless stories like Shakuntala, Ritusamhara, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, etc. Sudaraka was a famous dramatist while Upavarsha and Bandhayan were famous philosophers. Works on medical science, astronomy and law were also composed. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira were famous astronomers. The Puranas were updated and the Smritis of Yanavalkya, Narada, Katyayana and Brihaspati were also written. The accounts of foreign visitors like Fa Hien, the Chinese scholar who visited the court of Chandragupta II also added to the historical literature of the age.

The Gupta Age – the Golden Age

The Gupta Age has been referred to as the ‘Augustan Age in the history of India’, ‘the Classical Age’ or the ‘Golden Age of India’. Thus was the Gupta Age deserving of such praise. Some scholars agree while others do not.

Dr Vincent Smith – ‘The Gupta period was a time of exceptional intellectural activity in many fields’.

Dr Mehandale – ‘The political unity and prosperity of India under the Guptas combined with the staunch patronage that they extended to Sanskrit learning resulted in the flourishing of Sanskrit literature in all branches. It was that period that produced the best authors in almost all branches of literature, including the sciences like astronomy and mathematics’.

Dr. A. K. Majumdar – ‘A new chapter in the history of India begins with the Guptas. Sanskrit literature reached its peak of glory during this age. The contribution of the Gupta Age in the realm of art is also considered classical’.

Dr. Romila Thapar – ‘The Gupta age was classical only for the upper classes of society. The common man did not share in these luxuries’. – This view is also held by Subaltern historians like Ranjit Guha. According to him, life for the common man continued in the same way as before and none of the ‘glory’ of the Guptas affected their everyday life.

SOCIAL CHANGE

Meaning and definition of social change: Change is an ever-present phenomenon. It is an integral part of nature and of man. All societies are subject to change, the physical environment, people, and culture all undergo changes. Society is not static but dynamic.

To Mac Iver and Page, social change refers to the changing pattern of social relations, social structure, of groups and organizations. It is defined as the changes in the structure and functioning of a particular social system. Identifying change involves showing how far the structure of an institution or society or community is altered over a period of time. a given social system is in a process of change when its basic institution is modified, when the roles which individuals constituting the system change when functions change, when status is based on achievement, etc.

Social change mainly refers to changes in the life patterns of people. Changes in art, science, technology, philosophy, may result in the changes in the attitudes, behavior, social processes, social patterns, interactions and relations of people. These changes then amount to social change.

Factors responsible for social change: Social change is the product of the interaction of many factors. A single factor may trigger a particular change, but it is always associated with a number of factors. The physical, biological, technological, cultural, and other factors may together being about social change. None of these factors works separately form the rest. Each factor is therefore an element in the system. Changes in one part influence the other parts, until the entire society or community is involved. The following are the factors that are responsible for change.

Physical environment – has an effect on the development of human social organization, for e.g., in extreme environmental conditions people must reorganize their ways of life in relation to weather conditions. People who live in Alaska follow different patterns of social life from people in Mediterranean countries. Major changes in the environment are quite reare but very compelling when they occur. For e.g., when there is a famine or when soil is eroded or when coal or oil in a particular region is exhausted etc., people have to move away or man’s original activity changes. Human beings however can adapt to their environment. They can master the world around them. Man does not accept the limitations imposed by his natural environment; he strives in various ways to change it. He can change the courses of rivers and turn deserts into fertile areas. Each new invention, each improvement of man can lead to change in society.

Population factors – Changes in the size, density, sex-age composition of population have an important impact on social change. A rapidly growing population must either migrate or improve in productive techniques. For e.g., population explosion in a developing country like India has led to many socio-economic problems including crime and violence. Great historical migrations and conquests of the Vikings, Huns, etc., have arisen from the pressure of a growing population upon limited resources. Migration encourages further change for it brings a group into a new environment, subjects it to new contacts and confronts it with new problems. Population changes have occurred all through human history, by reason of migration, war, changing mores, famines, etc. Those societies were declining death rate have a higher standard of living, high status of women, high levels of literacy, etc. A population change therefore is not only a change in itself, but also becomes a causal factor in further social and cultural changes.

Economic factors – influence the rate and kind of change. Industrial capitalism is one of the most important economic factors that have had a far-reaching impact on the society. It not only aims at technological innovations and increasing productivity but also maximizes profits at the cost of labor welfare. This results in conflicts between the rich and the poor. Economic inequality has become a common feature where there is deprivation of every kind. There is no equality of status, rather, a glaring disparity between the rich and the poor, leaving the country with no savings or capital investments. Our cultural interest are often affected by economy. For eg. Those interested in fine arts, dance, music, theatre, etc., as a career cannot take them for want of enough resources or economic support. However, economic factors alone cannot be the cause of social change.

Political factors – Another type of influence on social change is the impact of political developments. The struggle between nations to expand their power, develop their wealth and military over other nature has been an important source of change over the last few decades. The government as political machinery can either enhance change or disrupt and retard it. The political ideology, the policies and programs and efficiency with which they run the country tends to influence the process of social change. For e.g., political instability in India has adversely affected economic growth. NRIs and other foreign investors dread investing their money in projects or industries in India. Terrorism and religious fundamentalism have caused havoc in India. India has suffered from these politically oriented movements which have resulted in riots and conflicts. Thus, political factors can ruin a generation, affect social change, the socio-cultural and socio-economic life of the people.

Isolation and contact – Societies located at world crossroads have always centers of change. Since most traits come through diffusion, those societies in closest contact with other societies are likely to change most rapidly. Areas of greatest intercultural contact are always the centers of change. Trade, even war has always brought intercultural contact and today tourism is adding to the contacts between cultures. Conversely isolated areas are less likely to change. The most primitive tribes have been those who were the most isolated like the polar eskimos or the Onges of the Nicobar Islands. Isolation invariably retards change.

Attitudes and Values – Societies differ greatly in their general attitude towards change. A society that reveres the past, worships ancestors, are preoccupied with traditions, superstitions, and rituals will change very slowly and unwillingly. Literate and educated people tend to have positive attitudes and values towards change and hence accept changes more readily than illiterate and uneducated people do. A rapidly changing society therefore has a different attitude towards change and this attitude is both cause and effect of the change already taking place.

Perceived needs – A society’s rate and direction of change are greatly affected by the needs its members perceive. ‘Needs’ are subjective, they are real only if people feel they are real. Until people feel a need, they resist change. For e.g., the tire was invented in 1845 but was ignored until the popularity of the bicycle created an awareness of the need for tires. A more recent failure is the need to recognize that death control creates the need for birth control as well as the population will increase tremendously.

The cultural base – By cultural base we mean the accumulation of knowledge and technique available. As the cultural base grows, an increasing number of inventions, innovations and discoveries are possible. Unless the cultural base provides the necessary knowledge and technique available to the inventor, innovations cannot take place. For e.g. Leonardo da Vinci sketched many machines which were entirely workable in principle, but the technology of his day were incapable of building them.

Processes of social change

When we refer to social change as a process we mean that it is a definite step by step manner by which change takes place and where one state leads and merges into another. A process means a continuous change taking place in a definite manner through the operation of forces present from the very beginning with the situation. Examples of processes is communication, integration, socialization, inventions, diffusion, discovery, innovations, etc.

Discovery – A discovery is a shared perception of reality, which already exists. It is an addition to the world’s store of already existing knowledge. It adds something new to the culture because although this reality may have always existed, it became part of the culture only after its discovery. For e.g., human beings discovered continents, circulation of blood, the different planets, comets, etc. A discovery becomes a factor in social change only when it is put to use. For e.g., before AD 100 Hero of Alexandria had build a steam engine as a toy, but steam power produced no social changes until it was put to serious use years later. Therefore, when new knowledge is used to develop new technology, cast changes generally follow.

Invention – An invention is often defined as a new combination or a new use of existing knowledge. The wheel did not exist until someone had the idea of using a round slice of tree log and length of tree limb, or round stone. Thus, even though the elements used are not new, it is the idea of combining them in a useful way that produces something that never existed before. For e.g., iron, with the addition of small amounts of other metals, became steel, a new metal altogether. Inventions may be classified into material inventions such as bow and arrow, telephone and so on and social inventions such as the alphabet, law, etc. Each invention may be new in form, function and meaning. Form refers to the shape or trait of the new invention; function refers to what the invention does and meaning the long range consequence of its use. For e.g.  the hooka, bedi and cigarette are different in form, but not in function or meaning.

Innovation – The term innovation usually includes both discoveries and inventions. In either case something new has been added to the culture. Innovations are usually compatible with being the existing culture. Usually traits are modified to fit into the existing culture of the society. Example – A new speech form – Hinglish – new dance step, etc. A society with a good cultural base that provides for the accumulation of science, technology will have more innovations.

Diffusion – Most of the social changes in society have developed through diffusion, the spread of cultural traits from group to group. Diffusion operates both within societies and between societies. Jazz originated among the black musicians of New Orleans and today it has been diffused throughout the world. Diffusion takes place whenever societies come into contact. A typical American wears pajamas invented in India, uses coins invented in Lydia, eats waffles invented in Scandinavia and smokes (an American India habit) a cigarette, derived from Mexico. The process of diffusion therefore is an important instrument of social change. Most of the aid-programs in underdeveloped countries and underprivileged groups within countries are efforts to promote diffusion.

 

Planned social change – The direction and spread of change are often conditioned by human engineering. Planned social change referred to a conscious and systematic planning, projects, programs, etc., launched by man to determine and control the rate and development of change. For e.g., fiver year plans, Family Welfare Programs, Economic policies and so on. Planned social change is desirable as the various goals to be achieved the means to achieve them are outlined before. India has adopted planning programs after independence to bring about overall development particularly in the villages. For e.g., irrigation projects, credit societies, etc. Similarity, in the urban areas town planners seek to introduce various projects and constructive changes to make life in cities more bearable. For e.g., building flyovers, highways, controlling air and water pollution, reducing noise pollution, etc., Planning is also necessary to combat the problems that could arise of unplanned changes. Unplanned changes refer to changes resulting from natural calamities, wars, etc. Therefore, planning change is a necessary feature of modern societies in order to achieve overall progress.

 

Resistance to and acceptance of social change

Specific attitudes and values – Aside from its general attitude towards change, each society has many specific attitudes and values. Peoples establishes likes and dislikes are important factors in social change. If an object or trait has a purely utilitarian value – i.e., if it is a valued because of what it will do, or how it will benefit people – change may be accepted quite readily.

Demonstrability of innovations – An innovation is most quickly accepted when its usefulness can be easily demonstrated. The American Indians very eagerly accepted the European guns and pistols, as it was more useful than the bow and arrow. The people in the urban areas readily accepted the pressure cooker, washing machine, and various other household appliances. Sometimes inventions are inefficient in their earlier stages that the general acceptance is delayed until they are perfected. For e.g., the recent innovations of the solar operated autorickshaws or cars are not readily accepted. Social inventions however can be tested only through long term trial.

Compatibility with existing culture – Innovations are most readily accepted when they fit in nicely with the existing culture. If the innovation conflicts with the existing culture, it may be rejected, or it may be modified to fit into it. Many tribal areas have readily accepted the procedures and materials of scientific medicine – antibiotics, vaccinations, etc., and have continued to use their traditional folk medicine. Today American movies, sport, fashion, etc. have been readily accepted in Indian society, but with necessary modifications.

Technical difficulties and costs of change – Change is almost always costly. Not only does it disrupt the existing culture and destroy cherished sentiments and values, but it also involves some specific costs. The very poor resist change because they cannot afford to take any risks. Technology not only costs materially but also brings about difficulties if the culture is not modified enough to accept new change.

Role of the change agent – who proposes a change how does this person go about it? The identity of the originator greatly affects acceptance or resistance of change. Innovations, which are first adopted by persons at the top of the social ladder, are likely to filter downward quite rapidly. Many change agents are deviants of some sort. The non-conformists may launch a new fashion, speech form, or dance step, which may be readily accepted among people.

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF AGGRESSION

 What are the various social factors that lead to aggression?

Write an explanatory note on social causes or determinants of aggression.

Aggression is defined as a behavior with a goal to harm other living beings.

Social determinants of aggression are all those social conditions that are conditions of external environments which either lead to or increase the intensity of aggression.

The following are the various social causes that lead to aggression:

Frustration: It is experienced when we encounter a hurdle / obstacle in the attainment of our goal. It is usually defined as the way we feel when something or someone prevents us from getting what we want or expect ot get in some situation. In 1939, Dolland coined a hypothesis to study the impact of frustration on aggression known as the Frustration-Aggression-Hypothesis. This hypothesis assumes the following: frustration always leads to some form of aggression and aggression always stems for frustration.

In other words, the theory held that frustrated persons always engage in some type of aggression and that all acts of aggression, in turn, results from frustration. Later research proved that these statements are bit too extreme as frustration can lead to despair on depressions. It is also felt that not all aggression results from frustration. People aggress for many different reasons and in response to many different factors or boxers hit their opponents because they wish to win valued prizes and not because of frustration.

Frustration sometimes produces aggression because of a basic relationship between negative affect and aggression behavior. Frustration leads to negative affect and negative affect in turn leads to aggression. (Frustration can be classified into unexpected, illegitimate and expected, legitimate – the impact of negative affect on aggression can be observed). Unexpected and illegitimate frustration generates greater amount of negative affect than frustration that is expected or received as legitimate that is greater negative affect, therefore greater amount of aggression.

 

Direct provocation: Provocation is defined as actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient often because they are perceived as stemming form malicious intent that is aggression leads to aggression.

Harris (1993) conducted a research:

Aim – To find what actions of others are most provoking and do gender differences exist in response to provocation.

Research design – Research isolated certain behaviors to be included in the study. The factors / behaviors studied are as follows:1. physical aggression, 2. verbal aggression, 3. insensitivity, 4. arrogance, 5. dishonesty and 6. inefficiency.

Male and female subjects were asked to report which of the above factors they find extremely provoking or in other words which behavior makes them very angry and also state which are least annoying.

Results – It was observed that males and females both found the first two factors as highly provoking. However, gender differences were observed regarding factors three and four.

Observation revealed that females showed greater amount of anger regarding these factors (three and four) whereas males hardly found these factors provoking. As regards, factors such as five and six, they showed agreement between genders (that is same trends were observed) both males and females saw these factors as least provoking.

 

Exposure to violent media – This may indeed be one factor contributing to the high and rising levels of violence. Three different types of research to find out whether viewing aggression and violent films can lead to an increase in such behavior. Research conducted were:

Short term laboratory experiment: This research usually makes use of the experimental method where exposure to violent media is for a short time and then impact on aggression is assessed.

Aim – To find out whether short term exposure to violent media leads to aggression.

Research – Subject divided into two groups S1 exposed to violent media and S2 exposed to neutral media.

Children were exposed to movies where aggressive adults were shows stamping and beating a BOBO doll.

After this, the children were put in the same situation with many toys in a room including the BOBO doll.

Results – It was observed that the children internalize the same violent behavior (stamping and beating) of the adults, hence they responded by an increase in aggression.

The control group which was not exposed to violent media were neutral and did not show aggression.

 

Static observation: (Millen 1994) It makes use of correlational techniques. Two factors were checked that is the current amount of exposer to violent movies (approximately) and level of current aggression in a child (as rated by peers / teachers or checked by a questionnaire).

Results – It was observed that those who were exposed to greater amount of media violence showed higher amount of aggression. Hence research proved that positive co-relation exists between exposure to violent media and level of aggression. Thus, the exposure to violent media, higher the aggression.

 

Longitudinal studies: The same subjects are studied over a long period of time. Eron (1984-86) conduced a research with subjects at different age intervals – 8 years, 18 years and 30 years.

Contacted subjects first at 8 years – assessed – exposure to violence and level of aggression.

He found that all those children who among the group had level of exposure to violent media showed high level of aggression while the children who had low violent media exposure showed lower aggression.

Same subjects were contacted after a gap of ten years when they were 18 years. Assessed again for exposure to violent media and level of aggression.

Concluded that those who had greater exposure to violence as children also showed higher aggressive tendencies and teenagers.

Finally the same group was followed up at the age of 30 years. It was observed that the amount of aggression viewed by the subjects as children was associated with their current level of aggression.

The significance of the research lies in the fact that it informs us that exposure to violent media can have long lasting effects.

 

Heightened arousal: Impact of physiological arousal on aggression can be explained by the example below:

Suppose a man ‘X’ wants to fetch his friend from the airport. On the way he has an accident – this increases his heart rate and other body functions also changes. Therefore, the body is in a state of heightened arousal. Eh reaches the airport where there is a queue, and an old man delays him.  Hence, he yells at the old man. Here he is showing his aggression but the cause is not the mildly frustrating current situation, but the heightened arousal created in the first situation (accident) that he got transferred into the next situation. Thus, aggression occurs as a result of that.

Under some conditions in heightened arousal – whatever its original source – can enhance aggression in response to frustration or provocation.

 

Excitation transfer theory (Zillmann 1983, 1988): This theory suggests that arousal produced in one ‘situation’ tends to dissipate slowly over time. as a result some portion of such arousal may persist as a person moves from one situation to another. It is therefore this arousal (created in situation 1) that leads to aggressive behavior in situation 2.

Complex interplay between emotions and cognition. Our thoughts can lead us to appraise various emotions – provoking events e.g., if persons are worried in advance that someone with whom they will soon interact is very upset, they experience less anger in response to rudeness by this individual.

Even our level of arousal influences our thoughts about others behavior. Therefore, if we consider (the behavior of the old man) mildly frustrating situation, we may not be aggressive. Levels of arousal also influence our tendencies to aggress to others and this is known as cognitive deficit i.e., reduced ability to formulate rational means of action or reduced ability to evaluate the possible outcome of various behaviors.

e.g., A man dashes a girl – the girl sees the man hurrying to work and he said sorry – thus she passes it off and says okay! – Therefore, her thought process was different i.e., positive about the stimuli.

 

Sexual arousal: It appears that relatively mild levels of sexual arousal can reduce overt aggression relationship.

2 component model by Zilmann (1983)

Research conducted by Zilmann (1983)

Aim – To see the impact of sexual arousal on the level of aggression.

Subjects were annoyed by a stranger (who was a female and subjects were males).

S1 were exposed to a film (with sexual content) which was mildly sexual arousing.

S2 were exposed to a film with neutral content.

Both S1 and S2 were given an opportunity to retaliate against the stranger.

Results: It was found that in S1 who experienced mild sexual arousal. There was low level of aggression in comparison to S2.

Zillmann (1984) who conducted a research that highlights the relationship between sexual arousal and aggression as Curvilinear in nature. Research reports that mild sexual arousal reduces aggression to a level below that shown in the absence of such arousal.

This has been proved by research conducted by Zillmann. He further highlights the facts that if arousal continues to increase above mild level the impact of aggression changes. That is heightened (increase) sexual arousal leads to high level of aggression.

All this happens as mild erotic materials generate weak levels of arousal but high levels of positive effects. Thus, in other words – mild sexual arousal puts us in a good mood and therefore reduces overt aggression. However, strong levels of arousal generate high negative effect (mood). Therefore, negative mood leads to tendency towards aggression.

 

Sexual jealousy (Kalma): It is a perception of a threat to a romantic relationship by a rival for one’s partner.

Does sexual jealousy lead to aggression?

Gender differences in sexual jealousy:

Aim – To find out differential aggressive behavior shown by males and females in response to sexual jealousy.

Research – College students were asked to indicate how they would react if they learn that their current lover was having an affair with another person.

Subjects were asked as to which type of behavior they show out fo the following

Verbal aggression

Physical aggression

Crying

Getting drunk

Results – Kalma et al (1993) found that large differences between males and females

Behavior                    females               males

Verbal Aggression       96%                  65%

Physical aggression     94%                  67%

Crying                         100%               59%

Getting drunk             74%                  89%

 

These results show that females are more likely than males to show that first three types of behavior in response to sexual jealousy.

 

Exposure to violent pornography: Social psychologist has adopted several different research methods to study this topic. One of these involves the use of short-term lab experiments. This was adopted in a research by Zilmann (1984)

Aim – To study impact of violent pornography on the level of aggression.

Research: S1 were exposed to violent pornography

S2 were exposed to pornography that involves sexual behavior

S3 neutral film

Results: These highlighted that the level of aggression was greatest in S! lowest in S2 and mild in S3. Also it was found that violent pornography led to callous attitude towards sexual violence as it has desensitizing effect in which viewers react less negatively to the violence in these films as they match more and more of them i.e., they get used to them. Mild pornography leads to mild sexual arousal and therefore reduces aggression.

AGGRESSION | THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Give a detailed account of various theoretical perspectives on aggression.

Aggression can be defined as behavior directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.

Origin of Aggression: In order to explain how aggression originated various theoretical perspectives have attempted to explain how it formed.

Instinct theory: It is the view suggesting that aggression stems from innate tendencies and that it is universal among members of a given species.

The oldest explanation for human aggression suggests that human beings are somehow ‘programed’ for violence by basic nature. This belief is known as ‘instinct theory’ of aggression. Thus, people aggress because it is a part of their human nature. Sigmund Freud was a great support of this theory. According to him, this instinct is initially aimed at self-destruction but soon it gets re-directed outward towards others. Freud believed that hostile impulses generated by Thanatos (death instinct) increases over time and if they are not realized periodically, they reach high levels, which may result in dangerous acts of violence.

A related view was presented by Konrad Lorenz who suggested that aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting instinct that human beings share with many other species.

This fighting instinct developed as it yielded important benefits essential for survival. Lorenz contended that fighting is often closely related to mating. It helps to ensure that only the strongest and most vigorous individual pass their genes on to the next generation.

However, most social psychologist do not accept the instinct theory of aggression for two reasons:

Criticism to the instinct theory suggests that if aggression is innate (as proposed by instinct theorist) then the level of aggression should eb the same in all the societies since this is not the case, definitely aggression is influenced by certain social and cultural factors.

The other criticism to instinct theory is that the instinct theorist asserts that since aggression is a common behavior, it most likely stems from innate tendences. This kind of circular reasoning used by the instinct theorists is not accepted by others.

 

Drive Theory: states that humans are driven to aggression by external stimuli. Berkowitz and others believe that aggressive behavior mainly stems form an externally elicited ‘drive’ to harm or injure others. This approach is known as ‘drive’ theory of aggression.

According to Drive Theorists, various external conditions like frustration, any  interference with goal directive behavior – arouse a strong motive to harm others. This aggressive drive, in turn, leads to overt acts of aggression.

The most famous aspect of drive theory is known as ‘frustration aggression hypothesis’. According to this view, frustration leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is that of harming some persons or objects. This drive in turn leads to a tax against various targets especially the source of frustration.

Because drive theorists suggest that external conditions are more crucial in the occurrence of aggression, they are more optimistic about the possibilities of preventing such behavior.

 

Social Learning Theory: The social learning view, as presented by Bandura, is a general framework which suggests that aggression is learned. This approach argues that human beings are not born with aggressive responses, rather they acquire these responses in the same way as they acquire other complex forms of behavior either through direct experience or by observing the behavior of others.

Thus, depending on their past experience, people in different cultures learn to attack others in contrasting ways.

Aggression can be learnt in two ways:

Direct experience: For e.g., a small child performs a negative behavior, parent responds through aggression (slap). Hence the child learns a lesson through direct experience that if someone shows that specific negative behavior the proper response is aggression (slapping).

Observation of others: For e.g., Child 1 has a brother/sister (that is child 2). Child 2 shows a negative behavior by being stubborn. Parent responds by showing aggression (slap). Hence child 1 learns through observation that when his sibling misbehaves the appropriate behavior shown is aggression. A child would internalize aggression shown be the parents because they are significant to them.

Social learning is also enhanced by rewards attached to a desired behavior. If aggressive behavior of a child is rewarded by his parents that are either by reward of praise, the child will view aggression as a desired behavior and therefore is more likely to repeat it.

 

Cognitive Theories: It highlights that aggression stems from a complex interplay between various cognitive factors like scripts, appraisals and effective status.

Scripts: involve mental frameworks relating to specific situations – scripts indicate what is expected to happen in a give situation. Scripts are cognitive programs for the events that are supposed to happen in a given setting. Scripts help in assessing whether the behavior (aggression) is appropriate in a setting or not.

For e.g., if a person roams one with a cart in the supermarket, one would react with surprise / pain or one could retaliate. All this depends upon whether one considers aggressive behavior appropriate in this situation (supermarket).

Appraisals: is one’s understanding of others behavior. It is the evaluation of the behavior of others who have provoked the target person. For e.g., A dashes against B, whether B aggresses will be dependent on how B interprets A’s behavior – i.e., if B thinks that A’s behavior was intentional, then B is likely to retaliate, but if B thinks that A’s behavior was accidental then B is less likely to aggress.

Affective Status: Very often aggression is known to be affected by current moods the target person is undergoing. Researchers suggest that when we are undergoing a negative affect, we will very often retaliate with aggression. On the other hand, if we are in a positive mood we are more likely to show low aggression.

 

Biological theory: There is of late an increasing recognition by social psychologists of the importance of biological factors in may forms of social behavior. Growing evidence points to the conclusion that biological factors do predisposed some individuals towards aggression. Certain reserachers relate the level of aggression as being caused due to certain physiological bodily factors. In order to prove this a research was conducted by Marazzitti et al (1993) 

Aim – The aim is to find out whether levels of serotonin in humans are related to aggression.

Serotonin is an important neurotransmitter in the nervous system which helps us to have a higher control over one’s aggressive impulses. If the level is high, control is high and vice versa.

Research was conducted on three groups of subjects:

S1 – children who had attempted suicide

S2 – institutionalized children due to aggression

S3 – healthy volunteers

Results – The researcher conducted a careful analysis of the blood chemistry of these groups.

Observations revealed that S1 and S2 possessed lower levels of serotonin and therefore they had demonstrated aggressive behavior in the past (either suicide or crime).

However, S3 which possessed high levels of serotonin, had greater control over their impulses and therefore less aggression had been shown by them previously, as they were normal, healthy individuals with non-aggressive past.

The relation between biological factors and aggression was also demonstrated by another research conducted by Van Goozen (1994) on female transsexuals (females who changed sex).

Aim – To find out whether sex hormones testosterone is related to aggression.

Research method – The female transsexuals had to fill a questionnaire to assess their level of anger proneness and level of overt aggression (physical or verbal).

As part of their medical treatment these individuals received regular large doses of the male sex hormones (testosterone) either by injection or orally.

The subject filled the questionnaires on two occasions – before administration of hormone and after three months of administration.

Results: It was observed that before the administration of testosterone when subject testosterone levels were low, their level of overt aggression and anger proneness was low.

After administration of the hormone when subjects testosterone levels were high there was a tremendous increase in anger proneness. However there was only a slight change in level of overt aggression.

 

 

AGGRESSION | BASIC DEFINITIONS

Aggression: Behavior directed towards the goal of harming another living being.

Instinct Theory: View suggesting that aggression stems from innate tendencies that are universal among members of a given species.

Drive theories (of aggression): Theories suggesting that aggression stems from external conditions that arouse the motive to harm others; the most famous of these is the frustration – aggression hypothesis.

Social Learning Theory: Theory emphasizing that aggressive behaviors are learned either through direct experience and practice or through observation of others.

Cognitive theory: Modern theories suggesting that aggression stems from a complex interplay between cognitive factors, affective states and additional variables.

Aggression Machine: Apparatus used to measure physical aggression under safe laboratory conditions.

Frustration – Aggression Hypothesis: The suggestion that frustration is a very powerful determinant of aggression.

Provocation: Actions by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient, often because they are perceived as stemming from malicious intent.

Excitation Transfer Theory: Theory suggesting that arousal produced in one situation can persist and intensify emotional reactions occurring in later situations.

Sexual jealousy: perception of a threat to a romantic relationship by a rival for one’s partner.

Type A Behavior pattern: Pattern consisting primarily of high levels of competitiveness, time urgency and hostility.

Type B Behavior pattern: Pattern consisting of the absence of characteristics associated with the Type A Behavior pattern.

Hostile aggression: Aggression in which the prime objective is to inflict some kind of harm on the victim.

Instrumental Aggression: Aggression in which the primary goal is not to harm the victim but rather attainment of some other goal, such as access to valued resources.

Hostile Attributional Bias: Tendency to perceive others’ action as stemming from hostile intent even when this is not clearly the case.

Child maltreatment: Actions that harm children either physically or psychologically.

Familicide: Instance in which an individual kills his or her spouse and one or more of his or her children.

Workplace Aggression: Aggression occurring int work settings.

Punishment: Delivery of averse consequences in order to decrease some behavior.

Catharsis Hypothesis: Theory that if angry persons can express their aggressive impulses in relatively safe ways, they will be less likely to engage in more harmful forms of aggression.

Incompatible responses: In relation to aggression responses that are incompatible with anger or overt aggression against others.

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN THE THIRD WORLD SOCIETIES

Third World Societies: From the 17^th century to the early 20^th century the western countries established colonies in many areas previously occupied by tradition societies using their military strength wherever necessary. Although these colonies have now attained independence the process of colonialism has shaped the social and cultural map of the glove. In some regions like North America, Australia and New Zealand which were only thinly populated by hunting and gathering communities, Europeans became the majority population. Societies of the first of these types such as the US have become industrialized. Other example are many countries of Europe like France, Germany, England, and parts of Asia e.g., Japan. Those in the second category are mostly at a much lower level of industrial development and are referred to as third world societies which include China, India, African Countries like Nigeria, Ghana, Algeria and those in South America, Brazil, Peru and Venezuela.

Level of Industrialization in the third world countries: The third world countries have a basic level of industrialization and majority of population is engaged in agricultural production. Since many of these societies are situated to the South of USA and Europe, they are sometimes referred as South (South Block) and contrasted to the nations of the north. The TWC are very different from pre-form, pre-existing forms of traditional state. They have political system which is derived from the first societies which established in the west. Most of the population still live in the rural areas but are highly affected by the process of urbanizations. Although agriculture is the primary occupation, crops are often produced for sale to the world markets rather than for local consumption. TWC do not consist of societies that have ‘lagged behind’ but have societies that are industrialized. TWC is usually understood as part of the contrast drawn between the three main types of societies which were found in the 13^th century. The FWC were industrialized states like Australia, New Zealand, Japan. FWC have a multiparty system and parliamentary system of government. Second World countries which refer to former communist societies, USSR, Eastern Europe, Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. The term third world refers to ‘Developing countries’ or ‘less developed countries’ by comparison with the industrialized nations. The third world societies are mostly very poor. Many of them have experienced the massive rate of population growth which places extreme strain on their resources as a result of which these countries generally have a very low standard of living.

The various conditions within the third world countries:

Economic conditions: The distribution of income and the average level of per-capita income in the developing counties is very low. There are several barriers which exist in raising the living standards of the poor. The barriers that exist are:

Dualistic nature of economies i.e., Modern and traditional economies

Disguised unemployment

Underemployment

Open unemployment

Nutrition and health: Low income has led to serious consequences in the field of nutrition and health of individuals. In the developing countries it is estimated that there are at least one billion people who suffer from malnutrition and a number of mental diseases.

Poverty and famine: Vast sections of population in the TWC face a shortage of food and experience famine conditions, not because the food has become scarce but because they are not proper entitled to have food. Entitlement to food depends on the ability of the individual to exchange productive resources (goods) for food. The need in TWC is to alleviated famine conditions. This requires the establishment and preservation of wealth and resources entitled to food and not just provision of more food.

Food production level: TWC have dual economies i.e., modern and traditional economies. The technology which is used in food production is also of different types. The developing countries have simple technology as well as modern sophisticated type of technology. Against this background food production in the developing countries has barely kept pace with the population growth i.e., the population in the developing countries rises at an alarming rate. Lack of adequate food supply and nutrition combined with rudimentary health facilities leads to low life expectancy and a high rate of infant and child mortality.

Education: There has been an enormous growth in public expenditure on education in the developing countries. However, it is shocking to know that the expenditure per-capita is only half of that in the developed countries.

Basic needs: include provisions of health services, education, housing, sanitation and adequate nutrition. All these are severely lacking int eh developing counties while there is a major improvement in the literacy rate in most countries over the last few decades, the absolute number of illiterate have increased. In the developing countries, secondary education as well as higher education is still a luxury as people cannot afford the high education fees that are to be paid.

In conclusion we can say that the developing countries lag behind severely with respect to highly developed countries and it is easy to note that the developing countries will hardly ever ‘catch up’ with the highly developed countries.