SINO JAPANESE WAR (1894-95)

Having fully developed her strategic industries and armed and naval forces, Japan aspired to become a Great Power in the Far East in particular and the world in general. The closing years of the 19^th century witnessed the Sino-Japanes War (1894-95), in which Japan won brilliant and easy victories over China and Korea.

Japanese interests in Korea: Prior to the Sino Japanese War, Korea was under the nominal suzerainty of China. The Chinese nominal control over Korea accompanied with continued chaotic conditions in Korea, menaced the security of Japan. Korea in the hands of an enemy was regarded by the Japanese as ‘a dagger thrust at the heart of trade interests in Korea. It was, therefore, essential for Japan to detach Korea from the Chinese connection and bring it under Japanese control.

War with Korea and China: In 1894, Japan served the King of Korea with an ultimatum to accept and implement the Japanese program of reforms. The King however, avoided the issue and consequently Japan attacked Korea and took away the King as a war prisoner. China also fought on the side of Korea was defeated. In less than a year, the Japanese overran practically the whole of Korea and southern Manchuria and were on the point of attacking Peking

Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): The Sino Japanese War came to an end by the Treaty of Shimonoseki on April 17, 1895, under which

China recognized the full and complete independence of Korea.

China ceded the Liao-Tung Peninsula and Port Arthur in Manchuria and Island of Formosa to Japan and

China had to pay a war indemnity of twenty crore taels to Japan.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION & THE INVENTIONS OF THE TIME

What was the Industrial Revolution? What were the Inventions made at that time?

Industrial Revolution was not a single event which happened at a particular time. In fact, Revolution is a stronger word for such a change. It brought about a fundamental change int eh methods of producing various goods. By it machines took prominence between 1750 and 1850.

The period of Industrial Revolution coincided with the Seven Years War, War of American Independence and the French Revolution.  Wars with France gave great impetus to the trade of England. Again, economic blockade during the Napoleonic Wars checked the flow of raw materials to the continent and poured them into England. This encouraged the development of industries.

Inventions:

Textile Machine: James Hargreaves invented (in1765) the spinning machine known as the ‘Spinning Jenny’. It could spin many threads at a time. Richard Arkwright improved the Spinning Jenny. As this machine was worked by waterpower, it was called ‘Water Frame’. But there were defects in both the above inventions. Hence, Samuel Crompton invented a machine called ‘Spinning Mule’ which had the good points of both the above inventions and defects of neither. All these machines made spinning quick, but weavers lagged behind. Hence, Cartwright invented the cotton gin to separate cotton fibers from cotton seeds. All these machines developed the textile industry.

Power for working the machines – waterpower was used. But it was not available at all places. Hence, Watt invented (1765) steam engine known as ‘Beelzebub’.

Coal and Iron: Formerly iron was smelted with charcoal, but charcoal was in short supply. Hence coal was used in smelting iron. Gradually iron and coal industries were developed. The process of preparing pig iron was found out.

Transport: Mere machines were not enough for industrial development. Transport facilities were necessary. Roads were improved by the process found by John Mc Adam. Then the steam engine was invented. George Stephenson was the father of the railway locomotive. His Rocket had a speed of 30 miles per hour. In 1830 world’s first passenger railway was started between Liverpool and Manchester. Steamboats were also prepared.

Telegraph: Faraday invented electricity. First electric telegraph line was inaugurated in 1845. Thereafter overseas cables were laid between England and France.

Changes in agriculture: During this period farm machinery was invented. Then began the rapid process of enclosure. This led to the consolidation of holdings. This is known as Agricultural Revolution.

Changes in Europe: English machines were introduced in France, Belgium, Switzerland and Germany. In 1789, spinning jenny was introduced in France. During the next thirty years steam was widely used in Western Europe. Germany advanced in metallurgy, and France in fine and beautiful textiles. But they were behind England in development.

Conclusion: Thus Industrial Revolution introduced numerous changes in the methods of production. Factories mushroomed at different places. As industries developed, towns also grew. Many good and bad results followed from the Revolution.

 

‘The Industrial Revolution solved some important problems but gave rise to others who have evaded satisfactory solution up till now’. Discuss.

Solution of important problems: Industrial Revolution solved some important problems. It replaced to some extent human labor by machinery.

Inventions of different machines ushered the new order in industries. Factory system large scale production, finished goods, quick means of transport, dissemination of knowledge through printing press, were the outstanding results of Industrial Revolution. It led to rapid economic progress of Europe.

New Problems: But it had created new problems like capitalism, imperialism, etc. Hyland writes: ‘the relationship of capital and labor, and the modification of the competitive system, constitute one of the most pressing problems that face humanity today’. Hayes Moon and Wayland write, ‘The Industrial Revolution has left with us an unwelcome heritage. Along with new power it gave us new problems. At the outset it enslaved children in factories, it herded people together in sordid slums, it brought trade unions into conflict with capitalists, it raised rents, it made some men millionaires and millions of others paupers or almost paupers’.

The main problems are to destroy the drawbacks of capitalism, to check the unemployment, to stop the scramble for markets, to lessen the evils of competition, to remove the hardships of laborers to avoid the class war.

Capitalists want freedom of trade and industry, while government checks them. Laborers want more wages, fewer hours of work, many facilities etc. For this purpose, they resort to strikes.

Different countries have tried socialism, syndicalism, communism, etc., to solve the problems created by the Industrial Revolution, but so far have failed to solve them.

CONGRESS OF VIENNA 1815

How far did the Congress of Vienna (1815) ignore the claims of nationality in Europe?

Representatives of Great Powers in Vienna: After the fall of Napoleon in 1814, it was decided to hold a Congress of Vienna to settle the affairs of Continent. Some of the sovereigns of Europe including the Tsar, the King of Prussia, and the Austrian Emperor were present. Many prominent statesmen also took part. Great Britain was represented by Lord Castlereagh, the foreign Secretary and the Duke of Wellington. Tallerat was the representative of France. Matternich, the leading minister of Austria, presided over the Congress.

The aim of the Congress: The aim of the Congress was to reward States which had opposed Napoleon and to penalize those which had supported him. It wanted to strengthen the states near France. In case there was a renewal of war by France, these states might check her. As far as possible, the Congress tried to restore legitimate rulers to the thrones they had lost. Yet the Congress did not aim at a complete restoration of pre-war Europe. It refused to re-establish the republics of Venice and Genoa. It had no wish to restore the Holy Roman Europe.

Distribution of Territories: Germany became a confederation of independent states under the presidency of Austria, Russia got Central Poland, some small Turkish territories and Finland. Prussia got Western Pomerania part of Saxony and some Rhenish provinces. Austria lost Belgium but received Lombardy and Venetia in Italy and the Illyrian provinces on the Adriatic Sea, Sweden received Norway, England Received Malta, Heligoland, protectorate over the Ionian islands, Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, and other colonial territories and commercial advantages. She became the greatest colonial power in the world.

Restoration of the Old Order: After making the above settlement of territories, the congress turned its attention to the work of resting pre-revolutionary conditions. France was allowed to retain her monarchial frontiers. The old Bourbon Monarchy was restored. Louis XVIII became the King of France. Holland and Belgium were united into one kingdom. Switzerland was given back her independence. German Confederation took the place of the old Holy Roman Empire. Spain was placed under the rule of her Bourbon King. Italy under the control of Austria was partitioned into a number of small states. The kingdom of Piedmont Sardinia was strengthened.

Criticism or Defects of the Congress of Vienna: The arrangements made at Vienna have been very much criticized. The wishes of Europe were not taken into consideration. The people of Belgium disliked the Dutch connection. Norwegians resented being ruled by Sweden. Poles chafed against Russian rule. Germany and Italy were left in a divided condition. This was done against the wishes of the more enlightened of their people. The Congress considered the interests of sovereigns rather than those of people. European territories were treated as private estates to be divided up at the will of their owners. Yet Napoleon had been overthrown by the people of Europe.

Criticizing the arrangements made at Vienna, Southgate says: ‘Since the Congress disregarded national feeling, which during the nineteenth century proved to be more powerful than royal interest, the settlement failed to be permanent. Many of the Vienna decisions were reversed or modified before the end of the nineteenth century’.

The real charge against the Congress of Vienna is that it ignored the challenge of the French Revolution. It failed to see the new forces of democracy and nationality. Hazen writes: ‘The Congress of Vienna was a congress of aristocrats to whom the ideas of nationality and democracy as proclaimed by the French Revolution were incomprehensive or loathsome. The rulers arranged Europe according to their own desires, disposing off it as it were their own personal property, ignoring the sentiment of nationality, been so wonderfully aroused, they were indifferent to the wishes of the people. Thiers could be settlement because they ignored the factors that alone would make the settlement permanent’.

OIL POLITICS

West Asian countries have oil reserves, but in the early nineteenth century, their people were unable to exploit it for their own use or anyone else’s benefit. In 1908, William Knox, a New Zealander had obtained a concession for the exploitation, sale and export of oil in Iran through the APOC.

The terms of the treaty were:

The concession was to last for 60 years after which all machinery, buildings and installations were to revert to Iran without any compensation.

The Iranian Government was to receive an annual royalty of 16% of the net profits of the APOC.

Oil was struck in commercial quantities in May 1908 at Majid-e-Suleman. In 1909, APOC was formed with a capital of 2 million pounds. In I914, the British navy began to use oil instead of coal-based energy in its ships. In order to obtain oil at a low price and to prevent other countries from having a share in the rich Iranian oil deposits, the British Navy purchased 55% of APOC’s shares and became the controlling shareholder.

Meanwhile, Russia and American Companies tried to extract concessions but were unsuccessful. APOC was increasing oil production and by 1933 it was producing 70 million tons per year. most of the administrative staff were British and they occupied all key positions. The Iranians were exploited and treated as inferior.

The Advent of Reza Shah: When Reza Shah came to power in 1925, the concession agreement with the APOC was revised to make it more favorable to the Iranian government.

It reduced the area covered by the concession to 100,000 sq miles.

The royalty payment guaranteed a fixed income to Iran

The new arrangements were not beneficial to the Iranian government.

In 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of the APOC to Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC)

Iran and World War II: During World War II, Iran was occupied by British, Americans, and Russian troops, which took over or otherwise controlled most of the administration. In 1943, the three powers reached an agreement for withdrawing their respective troops from Iran within six months after the end of the war. Russian troops left Iran only after the UN exerted considerable pressure on Russians. Even then Russians set up a pro-Russian regime in Iran’s northern province Azerbaijan, adjacent to the Russian border. This political confusion at home weakened Iran’s international standing.

After the war, both Britain and Russia were interested in controlling the oil rich deposits in Iran. Russia agreed to withdraw her forces only if their demand for oil concessions was granted. However, in 1945 the Iranian Majlis (Parliament) prohibited granting oil concessions to any foreigners. Britain withdrew troops but Russia didn’t. ultimately, the matter was referred to the UN Security Council (March 18, 1946). Therefore, Russia signed an agreement for oil concessions and then withdrew on 9 May 1946.

Oil Crisis: The question assumed crisis proportions in June 1948 when the AIOC announced that the royalty payment would remain the same as 1947 even if its net profits had increased from $26 million in 1947 to $52 million in 1948.

In 1947, the Iranian government received $19 million in royalty payment and taxes whereas the British Government received $56 million from dividends and taxes.

When the figures were published the Iranian people were agitated.

In 1948, the Iranian Government submitted a 25-point memorandum to the AIOC calling upon it to:

Increase the governments share of profit to 50%

Employ fewer foreigners and

Train more Iranians for technical and managerial position in the AIOC.

The two reached an agreement in 1949 known as ‘Supplementary Agreement’ (1949) which gave some concession to the Iranian Government. Unfortunately, the AIOC failed to keep its promises. The AIOC Annual Report of 1949 showed that Iran was given about $37 million in royalty payment and taxes whereas Britain received about $79 million from dividends and taxes.

Rise of Mussadiq: In 1950, the Iranian Majlis appointed an Oil Committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Muhammad Mussadiq to deal with AIOC. Dr. Mussadiq was a distinguished lawyer known for his loyalty. There followed negotiations between the oil committee and the AIOC which were unsuccessful. Britain found it difficult to accept the fact that she was no longer an eminent world power. America tried to persuade Britain to accept some demands of the Iranian Oil Committee. However, the AIOC refused to act.

Nationalization of Oil Industry: In December 1950, the Oil Committee rejected the supplementary agreement on the ground that it did not safeguard Iranian rights and interests. Dr. Mussadiq moved a resolution in the Iranian Maajlis calling for – nationalization of the oil industry in Iran. The government opposed this resolution, declaring nationalization to be impracticable.

Four days later the Iranian Prime Minister Razmaia was murdered. With his murder opposition to Dr Mussadiq’s proposal of oil nationalization crumbled and the Majlis passed a bill nationalizing the oil industry in Iran.

In April 1951, Mussadiq became the new Prime Minister and in October the AIOC was ousted from Iran.

 

Post Nationalization developments: After rejecting the supplementary agreement even the oil concessions to Britain were rejected. The British Government proposed arbitration and referred the dispute to the International Court of Justice at Hague but Mussadiq refused to submit to the courts jurisdiction. He argued that the dispute was between the sovereign state of Iran and a private company.

Thereafter, the British Government showed its willingness to accept the nationalization of the AIOC in a modified form. Dr. Mussadiq was also willing to negotiate with the British Government since he won the main battle. In a series of negotiations each side believed that it possessed the stronger bargaining power to back up its legal position.

The AIOC believed that only they could operate the intricate oil industry, the Abadan refinery and provide the necessary capital. In the absence of oil royalty payment, the Iranian economy would face serious difficulties which would face serious difficulties which would force the government to come to terms with it. It further believed that the action of the Iranian government in nationalizing the AIOC was illegal and wrong as it contravened the 1933 agreement. To the Iranians this nationalization meant independence.

Dr. Mussadiq encouraged the Iranians to believe that income from oil royalty and profits would enable them to live in ease and comfort, but he failed to realize the complexities of the international oil industry, or the difficulties involved in selling Iranian oil on the world market without the cooperation of international oil companies. He believed that Britain and France required Iranian oil to sustain their economies and would come to terms with him. He also expected the US Government to support him.

Deadlock I the negotiations and the resultant crisis: Very soon the negotiations reached a deadlock as either side refused to make any concessions. By mid 1951 oil production was completely stopped and arbitration failed. Mussadiq refused to submit the issue either to the Inteirnational Court of Justice or the United Nations.

Britain and Western Europe adjusted themselves to do without Iranian oil support.

Under these circumstances the situation in Iran began to deteriorate. Loss of royalty and profits began to pinch, scarcity of foreign exchange and credit forced Iran to curtail her imports. The army was short on supplies and wealthy landlords were forced to curtail on spending and luxuries. Iranian nationalists were frustrated at the continuing deadlock.

Dr. Mussadiq became more autocratic and in July 1952 he demanded autocratic power for himself. He wanted to rule by personal decree, dissolve the Majlis and introduce a comprehensive reform program. He held a referendum to dissolve the Majlis and got a 99.93% vote in favor of dissolution.

On 12 August 1953, he dissolved the Majlis.

By this time, he had been isolated, and he lost all support except from the communists. On August 13, 1953, the King dismissed him and appointed General Zahedi as the new Prime Minister. Dr. Mussadiq was arrested, found guilty of attempted rebellion and sentenced to three years imprisonment.

With General Zahedi at the helm of affairs, the Iranian crisis was nearing a solution.

In September 1953, the United States government granted Iran an emergency loan of $45 million to settle temporary difficulties. The oil dispute was finally settled in February 1954, by a consortium of 8 major oil companies.

On August 5, 1954, the Consortium and the Iranian Government signed a formal agreement which formally settled the dispute. The agreement went as follows:

-       The Consortium would extract, refine and market oil for the National Iranian Oil Company (NICO).

-       The NICO would receive 50% of the profits.

-       The Iranian Government would pay $70 million as compensation for nationalizing the AIOC.

-       In 1956, the NIOC took over the Russian oil concessions and thereby acquired full control over Iranian oil resources. In 1965, was formed the National Iranian Gas Company (NIGC), to exploit and utilize the seemingly limitless natural gas deposits in Southern Iran. In 1966, the royalty and profit income of Iran stood at $500 million.

Dr. Mussadique set an example for others to be cautions and the foreign companies became more reasonable, and therefore his cause was never lost. This episode in Oil Politics has been referred to as ‘an important reminder of strength’.

OIL POLITICS IN IRAN

Oil has been and remains till today a major asset of West Asia. The history of oil politics in West Asia originated in a humble village with ethe earliest discovery of Arabian Oil in 1859 and it reached a landmark in 1960 with the formation of OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries).

Even in the period prior to 1960, oil was basic to the life of many Arab countries as well as Iran. In the early twentieth century they had given concessions to search for oil. Once oil was discovered they were dependent on foreigners for the investment as well as the technology to extract, refine and sell the oil. These gigantic companies manipulated oil prices in a manner beyond the control of individual producing state to exercise some authority over the international company. A country could either nationalize the oil company as Iran did in 1951 or they could organize an international cartel to protect their interests.

This is what happened I 1960 when the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was born. OPEC was the result of a series of events and forces in which both the oil companies and oil producing countries were involved.

Although oil is the major asset of West Asia, yet not all of this region is oil rich. A majority of West Asian countries produce no oil at all or only small quantities of it. Hence there is a wide disparity of income between the nations of West Asia. The main oil producing countries of the region are Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, some of the members of United Arab Emirates and Oman. Except for Iran, they are all Arab Nations.

Oil had been discovered in Persia in 1908. The concession to extract it was secured by the British company named the Anglo Persian Oil Company (APOC). Prior to 1933, the fluctuations in the amount received from year to year left the finances of Iran at the mercy of the oil company. Besides, Iran’s share from the oil profits was a miserable 16%. In 1933, Reza Shah secured better financial terms and a reduction of the concession area by half of the company whose name was now changed to Anglo Iranian Oil Company (AIOC). In Iraq oil was discovered before World War I. The Ottoman Government had granted the oil rights to two German concerns. At the end of World War I, Iraq came under British control. Iraq had oil field in Mosul region in the North. Later oil was discovered in the Baghdad province and around Basrah in the South. These were exploited by the Iraq Petroleum company.

The Arabian peninsula is extremely rich in oil deposits. In Saudi Arabia oil was discovered in 1938 by the California Standard Oil Company (CASCO), whose name was later changed to the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). It was supposed to have anywhere between 1/3^rd to 1/4^th of the worlds oil reserve. Saudi Arabia grew rich very rapidly. Oil was discovered in Bahrain (1932) and a large refinery was build by a British company to exploit it. Oil was found in Oman in 1937 but production began only in 1967. In Qatar, the Sheikh granted the oil concessions to the Iraq Petroleum Company in 1935 but oil began to flow only after World War II. In 1934, the Kuwait Oil Company (KOC), a British cooperation received a concession for the entire 5,800 sq miles of the state. Oil was found in 1938 through commercial production was stalled during World War II and did not commence till 1946. Of the seven petisheikhdom that had been under British production, and which formed the United Arab Emirates in 1968, Abu Dhabi, Sharjah and Dubai are oil producing.

By mid-1940, the oil resources of the Arab world and Iran had become the most important reason for the strategic value of this region to Western companies which made huge profits 80-90% of the oil used in Western Europe flows from this region. In the year 1960, Iran and the Arab world were producing about 25% of the world’s output and held 2/3^rd of its reserves. In the period between the end of World War II and 1960 when OPEC was formed voices began to be raised in this region against the huge profits being made by the International Companies at the expense of oil producing countries. Venezuela played an important role in shaping the oil policies of the oil producing countries. In 1948, a law was passed which called for a 50-50 profit split between the Oil Company and Venezuela. The same principle was gradually adopted in West Asian Countries except Iran.

The non-acceptance of the principle in Iran led to one of the gravest crisis of the oil industry. Since 1941, when British troops have invaded the country, Iran had a deep sense of animosity towards it. Realizing this the Anglo Iranian Oil Company opened in 1948 had started preliminary discussion with the government about profit split. When the government demanded that profit split on the 50-50 principle should apply to all company’s profit, the company refused. In July 1949, the company offered the Iranian government that the shares of profit should not fall below 4 million pounds a year. this was not acceptable to the Iranian government.

However, it was too late. By then the bill had been passed and received royal assent for the nationalization of oil company.

The act of nationalization of oil company in Iran in 1951 created more problems that it solved. This was the oil crisis of 1951-53. The oil activities were completely crippled when the Prime Minister Dr Moussadique insisted that the British Personnel employed by the Company should either work for him or leave the country. The staff accepted to leave. Iranians were not available to run the industry. The chaos was total and complete. Not only did Iran cease to export oil but they had to even import it for their own use. The Anglo Iranian Oil Company which had half the share in the Kuwait Oil Company expanded its activities in Kuwait. As a result, the oil prices in Iran acted as a catalyst for oil production in Kuwait.

A military coup led by General Zahedi in 1953 removed Prime Minister Mossadique from power and re-installed Shah Muhammed Reza Shah. A new consortium of international companies was formed to revenue the Iranian oil industry. Though oil was the property of National Iranian Oil Company, the international consortium produced the oil. The National Iranian Oil Company was the first of the (inter)national oil companies.

In order to appreciate the logic of OPEC, oil relations in West Asia between the oil producing countries and the oil companies that existed till 1960 have to be studied. The terms of the oil concessions awarded to the companies often constituted the source of friction, dispute and misunderstanding between the two parties. Most o fhte concessions were of a long duration. Also, the areas covered by these concessions were vast. For e.g., they covered almost all territories of Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar. In some other countries they covered a majority of the area.

The companies never surrendered the area not explored by them. Therefore, on many occasions, the host government undertook to persuade or pressurize the companies to do so. Obviously, this created resentment between the two. There was also a phenomenal increase in the demand for oil and hence its production. Production had increased in the Middle East from 11 million tons in 1935 to 257 million tons in 1960.

The host countries felt that they did not have sufficient control over the activities of oil companies. This was made clear when the oil companies unilaterally reduced the oil prices first in 1959 and then again in August 1960. Arab League in 1951 had set up an Oil Experts Committee and subsequently a decision was taken in 1954 to make a permanent organization to look into oil affairs. An Arab Oil Congress was held in 1949 and 1951. It was within the Arab League that most of the ideas of Arab policies for oil took shape. With the Arab League taking interest in oil, oil was politicized, and the stage was set for OPEC.

In September 1960, Iraqi government convened a conference of oil producing countries at Baghdad. It was at this conference that OPEC was born. Iran, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela, were the founder members of OPEC. Others soon joined. OPEC consists of seven Arab states – Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Abu Dhabi, Qatar, Libya and Algeria. The six non-Arab states are Iran, Venezuela, Indonesia, Nigeria, Ecuador and Gabon. In 1967 (OAPEC) i.e., Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries was also formed.

The aims of OPEC were to establish a uniform policy, ironing out differences among various producing countries with respect to issues like price, royalty, production. The first task OPEC set for itself was to stabilize oil prices and maintain them steady and free from all unnecessary fluctuation.

Since 1973, OPEC has steadily raised the price of oil, thus holding the rest of the world to ransom. The role of Saudi Arabia had been crucial since it is the largest producer. Oil has provided the Arab states with a powerful weapon which can be used.

Thus during the Arab Israeli War of 1973, oil was employed for political gains. The Arab countries of OPEC placed an embargo of supplies to USA. The output of oil and prices automatically jumped. OPEC countries had thus emerged as the economic power to reckon with.

The West Asian countries have now nationalized their oil industries. For e.g., Iraq did so in 1972 and Kuwait in 1975.

Oil politics continue to be dominant in West Asia. The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in August 1990 and the Gulf War of Jan-Feb 1991 form part of the continuing story of oil politics in this region.

NATIONALISM

 Nationalism is a people’s sense of belong together as a nation. It also includes feelings such as loyalty to the nation, pride in its culture and history and – in many cases – a desire for national independence.

Since the late 1700s, nationalism has become an important force in international relations. Nationalistic feelings, particularly the desire of each country to govern itself, have helped change the map of Europe several times since the 1800s. Since the late 1940s, nationalism has also transformed Africa and Asia.

Nationalism is widespread today, but it once did not even exist. People have not always had a sense of nationhood. Early people felt that they belonged to cities or tribes. During the Middle Ages, people were loyal to a number of groups and rulers. For e.g., a French citizen might have owed loyalty to the Duke of Burgundy, the King of France, the Holy roman Emperor and the Pope.

The rise of nationalism occurred along with the development of a political unit called the nation-state.

A nation is a group of people who share a common culture, history or language and have a feeling of national unity.

A state is an area of land whose people have an independent government.

A Nation-state exists if a nation and a state have the same boundaries.

Nation-states began to develop during the late Middle Ages. Travel and communication improved and as a result, people became increasingly aware of the part of their country that lay outside their own community. Loyalty to local and religious leaders began to weaken, and allegiance to Kings grew stronger. By the 1700s, England, France, Spain and several other countries had become nation-states.

Other peoples developed a sense of nationhood by early 1800s. but most had not become nation-states. Many people believed that a national group had the right to form its own state. This belief, known as the doctrine of national self-determination, caused many nationalistic revolutions in Europe. For e.g., Greece won independence from Turkey in 1829, and Belgium became independent of Netherlands in 1830.

Different forms of Nationalism later developed in various parts of the world. In the United States, the spirit of nationalism expressed itself in rapid westward expansion during the 1800s. Many Americans became convinced that their nation had a manifest destiny – that is, a clear mission to take over all of North America.

In Western Europe, new feelings of nationalism united the Italians and then the Germans, both of whom were still divided into many states. Each of these peoples combined to form one country out of the states. The unification of Italy was completed in 1870 and Germany became a nation-state in 1871.

In Eastern Europe, on the other hand, national groups sought to create smaller states out of the huge Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian empires. These demands for national self-determination helped cause World War I (1914-1918) and broke oup the empires after the war.

During the 1930s two dictators- Adolf Hitler of Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy – used nationalism in demanding extreme loyalty from their people. They promoted integral nationalism, the belief that a certain nationality was superior to all others. This idea also placed strict limits on who could claim that nationality. In support of integral nationalism, the Nazis killed millions of Jews and other people whom they considered inferior human beings. Germany and Italy also set out to conquer the world. Their actions helped bring on World War II (1939-1945).

After World War II, Nationalism led many African and Asian colonies to demand self-government. India and Pakistan won independence from Great Britain in 1947. The next year, a nationalistic movement called Zionism resulted in the establishment of Israel.

By the 1970’s more than 80 other nations had become newly independent. Many of them lacked the long history of shared experiences that had produced nationalism in Europe. But their leaders encouraged nationalism to help develop national unity.

Effects of nationalism can be both good and bad. Nationalism gives people a sense of belonging and pride, and a willingness to make sacrifices for their country. They also take a greater interest in their nation’s achievements in such fields as sports, literature and music.

But nationalism also produces rivalry and tension between nations. Desires for national glory and military conquest may lead to war. Extreme nationalism may result in racial hatred and in persecution of minority groups.

COLONEL NASSER – ROLE IN THE GROWTH OF ARAB NATIONALISM

‘No other Arab leader in modern times has succeeded in winning the sometimes-hysterical support of Arab masses throughout the Middle East as did Nasser’ – Encyclopedia Britannica.

Early life: Nasser was born on 15 January 1918. From an early age he took part in many anti-British street demonstrations. He later served in the Egyptian army where he met like-minded men, sharing in his ideal to oust the British and Egyptian royal family. He began a secret revolutionary organization ‘the Free Officers’ where he was chosen as the President of the Republic.

In 1936, the King of Egypt, Fahd died and was succeeded by his sixteen year old son Farouk who ruled over Egypt till 1952. King Farouk was the most unpopular king who was known for his extravagant style of living. Due to the inefficiency of the King, the officers of the administration too became corrupt. His foreign policy was also not liked by the people, hence they revolted against him. In order to save himself, King Farouk tried to pacify his people by condemning the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. But even this did not save the King because in 1952, the people destroyed foreign property on a massive scale. This happened in the month of Jan 1952. In the month of July 1952, Bugadur General Mohammed Naquib organized a coup-d-etat, a military officer of Egyptian army by the name of Lieutenant Colonel Gamel Abdul Nasser. Colonel Nasser set aside General Naquib in 1954 and himself became the military dictator of Egypt. He had to face a number of problems.

In the first Arab Israeli War (1948), Nasser and a few companions were disillusioned with the dishonest communiques the government had issued on the progress of the battle, the corruption in the medical supplies and the uselessness of their equipment. It became increasingly obvious to Nasser and the office at that time that the British had to be removed and the entire system of government had to be changed.

On 23 July 1952, Nasser and a few officers staged an almost bloodless revolution, ousting the monarchy. The country was taken over by Nasser with General Mohammed Naquib as the puppet head of the State. But in the spring of 1954, Naquib and Nasser began to argue with each other, and the former was deposed and placed under house arrest. Nasser now emerged from the shadows and named himself Prime Minister.

Achievements: His achievements are as under:

First Agrarian Reform Law of 1954: In order to improve the agricultural output and to bring economic change int eh agrarian field Colonel Nasser passed the agrarian reform law. As per the law the peasants were to keep a fixed amount of land. The excess land was taken over by the government by giving compensation to the owner. The land was leased to the actual cultivators for a period of minimum three years. The farm laborers were given the right of farming unions. A committee was appointed for fixing daily wages of farm laborers. Moreover, agricultural cooperatives were set up for the benefit of the owners. The agrarian reform of Colonel Nasser was a grand success. It was executed by a High Committee for Agriculture independent from governmental interference.

Aswan Dam Issue: Western imperialist powers did not like to see the popularity of Colonel Nasser over the Aswan Dam Issue. President Colonel Nasser wanted to construct a dam on the river Nile. Britain and United States of America had agreed to help him by giving financial aid. The dam was to provide irrigational facility, generate electricity and control flood. However, Great Britain and France looked into the construction of the dam as an instrument of Arab attack on Israel. But in reality, they did not like the growing friendship of Egypt with Soviet Russia. Hence, they refused to give financial aid. This step did not bring Nasser to their terms. He got the money from USSR and constructed the dam. The Arabs appreciated him.

Nationalization of the Suez Canal: Colonel Nasser retaliated to the move of USA and Britain by proclaiming the nationalization of Suez Canal in 1956. He told the world that the Aswan Dam would not be constructed out of the profits which would come by the nationalization of Suez Canal. The move of Colonel Nasser shocked USA and Britain because of two reasons. Firstly, the Suez Canal had strategic importance. Secondly, both the nations had heavily invested in the shares of the Suez Canal. John Foster Dulles, an advocate of Dollar Imperialism in Afro Asian countries tried to mediate by proposing for the internationalization of the Canal at the London Conference. USA, Britain, and France formed the Canal’s Users Association. It was but natural for Colonel Nasser to get angry. He remained firm and started operating the canal independently in September 1956. The firm determination of Nasser against the great western power further added to his prestige and popularity.

Arab Israel War or Egypt Israel war of 1956: In order to teach Colonel Nasser a lesson, Great Britain and France instigated Israel against Egypt and the result was the Egypt Israel War of 1956. Great Britain and France did not consult President Eisenhower of America before taking such a step. The combined armies of Israel, France and Britain succeeded in conquering the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula, Port Said and a portion of the Suez Canal was also captured by Anglo French Israel action and threatened Egypt. USA got alarmed as this could give Soviet Russia a chance to penetrate into West Asia. Therefore, fear of spread of communism in West Asia, compelled America to force Great Britain and France through the UN organization. It demanded immediate ceasefire in Egypt. Thus, it was USA and USSR intervention which forced the UN General Assembly to order for the immediate restoration of peace. England and France immediately withdrew and the war was over. The event was of great significance in the sense that even Western powers like Britain and France were unable to defeat Egypt. Moreover, they lost the chance to have their say in West Asia. For Egypt, it was triumph of Arab Nationalism.

Establishment of United Arab Republic (UAR): The strong, firm, and bold step of Colonel Nasser against the great western powers made the whole Arab world look at him as a leader. The defeat at the hands of Israel made them seek a personality of great leadership and organization who could create unity among the Arabs. Hence, when they found such a person in Colonel Nasser, they supported him. The President of Syria proposed a union of Syria and Egypt. The willingness of colonel Nasser to have such a union led to the establishment of the United Arab Republic on 1 November 1958. Nasser himself became the President of UAR with Cairo as his headquarters. Thus, he became the leader of the Arab world for championing the cause of Arab Nationalism.

Thus Colonel Nasser achieved a lot during his period. He boosted Arab Nationalism and enabled Egypt to witness economic and political soundness. His land reforms gave the landless land. Industrialization started and the Western Imperialist forces were cut to size. Nasser followed the policy of non-alignment which also brought fame to him from the third world. He became so popular among the people that they even started worshiping him. Nasserism as a cult grew.

However, Colonel Nasser was not successful in all his efforts. Lebanon, Jordan, and Iraq did not like his stand. Syria also developed differences with Egypt due to which United Arab Republic broke down in 1961. Colonel Nasser died in 1970.

ARAB NATIONALISM

Arab Nationalism has its origin in Western thought. Like any other nationalism, the term suggests ‘it is a common bond which binds together groups of people who have common factors like religion, language, culture, civilization, food habit, dress and other mannerisms’. People inspired by nationalism are prepared to sacrifice anything.

The Arabs are a rugged race, used to harsh desert conditions (Sinai, Arabia, Syria, etc.) They have a lifestyle distinct from the people of the world (e.g., Nomads of Sahara). They are closely bound by their religion Islam. Most of them are scattered in the oil rich countries of Iraq, Arabia, over nearly two continents living under a variety of political social economic conditions.

The fall of the Ottoman Empire ushered in a new era of Arab Nationalism. There was a shift from Islam as a predominant price to nationalism feelings which now became prominent. It ushered in the secular concept of government, previously absent in Arabia.

Rise of Arabian Nationalism

By the end of the eighteenth century, Napoleon took his first French expedition into Egypt against the British. At this time the ‘Wahabi Movement’ began to set up the first independent state in Central Arabia. But the Ottoman rulers were able to crush it with the help of Muhammed Ali of Turkey. It aimed at eradicating the ills of Islamic religion to purify religious life.

During this time, theocracy was the ruling source of authority in Arabia. With the advent of education, Muslims and Christian Arabs now became conscious of their commonness. This commonality in language, past, race and religion, created new bonds of unity. A literary revival movement began which soon transformed into a political movement (which received much of its inspiration from the Young Turk Movement) called ‘Young Arab Association’ (Al Fatad) in 1913.

World War I and Arab Nationalism : During World War I, a section of the Arabs wanted to have an alliance with British and French but there were others who disagreed. Turkey had expected to join the war on the side of Germany against Britain and France.

The British were interested in drawing the Arabs onto their side and expected the Arabs to revolt against the Sultan of Turkey. The Arabs demanded that an independent Arab kingdom which was to include all Arabia (except Eden), Syria, Palestine and Iraq, before they joined the war. The British High Commissioner in Egypt, Sir Henry Mc Mohan, pointed out to Sheriff Hussain of Hejaz that those regions inhabited by non-Arab population in Syria, Lebanon and lower Iraq, would not be included in the Arab kingdom. The sheriff thought that this problem would be sorted out after the war was over. Britain thus exploited the situation to her benefit and the French were kept away from these talks. In October 1916, Hussain was proclaimed as King of Hejaz and he was to represent the Arabs at the Paris Peace Conference.

The Arabs were betrayed by Britain and France as they had already made a secret agreement known as the Sykes-Picot Agreement in June 1916, without letting the Arabs know about it. It was about dividing the Arab countries into spheres of influence of the two powers. This scheme was accidently exposed by the Bolsheviks in December 1917. It created such a sensation, that Balford, the British Colonial Secretary had to deny its existence.

In 1917, the Balford Declaration was announced with promised a homeland for the Jews. This was a further shock for the Arabs everywhere.

The nationalism of the Arabs in the period before World War I showed certain well-defined characteristics. It was partly inspired by revival of religious unity in the Arabian Peninsula and partly a product of Western thought.

Post War Arab Nationalism: Disregarding the provisions of the Paris Treaty and ignoring Wilson’s advice, the French occupied Syria in 1920. Arab resistance against French rule was crushed. The French autocracy followed a policy of setting the Christians against the Muslims. Moreover, they did not introduce any measures for self-rule as required by the Mandate. Syria was exploited economically. The friction between the Arabs and French continued under World War II.

Iraq which was earlier known as Mesopotamia became a British mandate of World War I. Faisal was made the King of Iraq by the British. In 1932, the British mandate came to an end and Iraq was admitted as a member of the League of Nations. In 1933, King Faisal died and there was anarchy. There were a series of coups and resignations. Finally constitutional government was restored in Iraq with Nuri Pasha at the head of the government.

Jordan also became a British mandate. The kingdom of Hejaz compried of the holiest of places like Mecca and Medina. In 1926, Sheriff Hussain, who was the ruler of the state was defeated by Ibn Saud. In 1932, he proclaimed himself the King of Saudi Arabia. Ibn Saud settled border disputes with Jordan and Iraq by following a policy of conciliation. Hussain’s sons, Faisal and Abdullah, were made the Kings of Syria, Iraq and Trans Jordan.

Iraq decided to organize the Arabs to support her. In 1931, Iraq entered into an Arab brotherhood pact with Ibn Saud, which was renewed in 1936. Iraq also joined the Saidabad Pact which was in existence from 1921 and its earlier members were Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan. Iraq had good relations with Trans Jordan and Egypt.

Founding of Arab League of 1945: The great alliance of the Arab states i.e., the Arab League was formed in March 1945 at Bluden in Syria. The original members of this league were Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Trans Jordan, Yemen, Syria and Lebanon.

Later on Libya joined it in 1953 and Sudan in 1956. The main objective of the Arab League was to promote nationalism among all the Arabs. It was born out of a desire for greater unity and strength.

The League opposed the creation of a new state for the Jews vehemently. It led to three wars. Egypt became the leader of the League since its inception and many leaders expected Cairo to be the future capital of Arab unity. The League was also to coordinated matters regarding defense, communication, customs and tariff, commercial and criminal laws and higher studies.

Arabism stressed similarities in culture, history, and ideals of the people. Arabism drew heavily from Islam as the emotional link among Arabs, but without using it as a principle of political organization. Without losing its nationalistic features Arabism opposed communism and helped in establishing an advanced society in the Arab states. Under leaders like Nasser, Arab Nationalism tried to integrate the religious and the secular subcultures into one combined national culture.

Arab Israel Conflict: The real solidarity of the Arabs was seen when the Jews declared the founding of the new state of Israel. All Arabs participated in protests against Israel in 1948, 1956 and 1967. Every time they were defeated by the Jews, but Arab Nationalism was fed on these defeats. They were determined to wipe out Israel. Arabs, after their political liberation are conscious of their rich oil resources, the command of Suez canal and their key position in the East-West struggle.

ARAB ISRAEL CONFLICT

Introduction – The partition plan passed by the UN in November 1047 was rejected by the Arabs. The Arab League representing 36 million Arabs was determined not to allow the creation of a Jewish state in the heart of the land of the Arab countries. There might have been rivalries among the Arab ruling elite, but they had a common goal and that was to see that no non-Arab state was thrust upon them.

Arab opposition – In January 1948, organized bands of Arabs began guerilla war. The Arab liberation army was supported by the Arab League and the Grand Mufti. The Arab countries of Egypt, Jordan, Iraq invaded Palestine and wished to form a shadow Arab government for Palestine.

Zionist resistance – The Jews too had a justification for resisting the Arab onslaught. They had been promised a homeland by the UN and were not going to let it evaporate in the hostile atmosphere. They met the massive attack by the Arabs on their new state, in the process of formation, by establishing a provisional Jewish government at Tel Aviv. The desperate resistance of 75,000 Israeli volunteers began under the leadership of Ben Gurion.

British stand – The British were not in favor of a partition plan and wanted some sort of Federation governing Palestine under the trusteeship of the UN. US initially supported partition, but since partition proved unworkable, she declared in March 1948 to support a temporary trusteeship of UN for Palestine. This had to be done before 15^th May 1948 as Britain had announced it would surrender its mandate to the UN and withdraw its forces from Palestine on that day.

Arab Israeli clashes – This change in the US policy gratified the Arabs. As these somersaults in policies of the big powers were taking place, the fight between the Arabs and the Jews went on unabated. In the first Arab Israeli war, the Israelites were greatly outnumbered. But they wanted the Arab Liberation Army. Ben Gurion and his colleagues could manage to arrange modern aircrafts from the US and Czechoslovakia. The Jews successfully occupied areas given to them in the partition plan.

The British High Commissioner left Palestine on May 14^th, 1948. The state of Israel was proclaimed and subsequently recognized by the US and Soviet Russia.

UNO and the War – The UN had to nip the war in the bud and prevent it from spreading to their countries. It appointed Count Bernadotte of Sweden to act as mediator. He brought about a ceasefire within weeks. The position of the combatants in Palestine was as follows:

The Egyptian Army had penetrated into Palestine and captured the Gaza strip. The Arabs held the Central part of Palestine.

The Zionist held most of the coastline, the cities of Tel Aviv, Haifa, district of Galilee and Jerusalem.

The Arabs attacked once again on 9^th July 1948 and another ceasefire had to be brought about. The mediator created an impression that he was pro Arab when he put forth a new partition scheme. Zionist terrorists in Jerusalem assassinated Bernadotte. He was succeeded by Dr. Buche who called Arab and Jewish representatives and an armistice was signed between Israel and Arab countries of Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan, Syria from Feb to July 1949.

This was a crucial issue for the UN as this was its first major undertaking since its establishment in 1945. The UN finally established peace and the Jewish state was accorded recognition by the major powers and Israel became a member of the UN in May 1949.

Settlement Program for Palestine – According to negotiations:

Jordan got one fifth of former territory of Palestine.

Egypt got the sandy coastline in southwest Palestine.

Israel got the coastline and Tel Aviv, Haifa, Galilee and most of Jerusalem.

 

After ceasefire the immediate problem was of the refugees. The UN passed a resolution for settlement of refugee problem and authorized the setting up of Palestine Conciliation Committee (11 Dec 1948). The largest number of refugees were in the Gaza strip which was occupied by Egypt. The relief program was to cost $300 million and US, British rest of the democratic world chipped in.

Israel complained that the reintegration of refugees was made impossible by vicious anti-Jew propaganda. On the other hand, 100,000s of Palestine Arabs had fled to neighboring countries as they had been uprooted.

Effects of the war on Arab countries:

According to Bernadotte’s report, the Arab territory of Palestine had been incorporated in Jordan. King Abdullah of Jordan, rushed to take charge of this area before any other Arab could occupy it. Therefore, he moved his troops from Jerusalem to this area and signed a truce with Jews in Jerusalem. This helped Israel concentrate on fighting Egypt. This forced Egypt to enter into an armistice with Israel and the other countries followed suit. Therefore, hostilities had ended by April 1949.

Defeat in Palestine was not just a military defeat, but a defeat of general Arab policy. Governments failed to satisfy nationalist sentiments that they had aroused and this led to unrest.

The pro-British King Abdullah of Jordan became the target of criticism as he had grabbed the Arab part of Palestine and prevented others. This created much heart burning. Abdullah was murdered on 20 July 1951.

In Syria there were several military coups over 1948-49 and finally Colonel Sushekey assumed control of the government placing his protégés as Prime Minster and Head of State.

An important effect of the defeat was experienced in Egypt. The nationalists wanted to overthrow the corrupt government and the ineffective Wafd Party. In July 1952, a group of young officers seized power. They got rid of King Faroukh. The officers led by Colonel Nasser and General Naquib, who made sincere attempts to reform the administration and promote land reforms. The new government made an agreement with Britain in 1953 to grant self-government to Sweden. In 1954, Nasser ousted Naquib to win over support of the Arab community, signed a treaty with Britain whereby British would withdraw forces from Suez Canal.

In a way the Palestine War preserved the unity among the Arabs. They considered the creation of Israel as European colonialism. The Nationalist spirit awakened, scattered over North Africa and West Asia, would not allow colonialism in any form to take root. They were keen on a military buildup and this necessitated ever expanding military budgets.

The Cold War – Israel owed its existence to the Western powers and its commitment to them was obvious. It could not risk losing their direct or indirect support. The Arab countries were determined to free themselves of Western influence. This further made the Arab land a battle ground in the Cold War. However, most power followed a confused and twisting foreign policy, abruptly switching sides.

Some Western powers resisted the partition. France despaired the loss of hold on Syria. Britain wanted air bases in the Middle East and military outposts to guard Suez Canal. She was satisfied that the Arab zone was assigned to probe British.

The US too was in a fix. The Presidential elections were to take place in 1952 and Israelites vote had to be secured. On the other hand, the Arabs could not be alienated as oil from the Middle East was coming through pipelines running across Arab countries. US also wanted to frustrate USSR’s efforts to spread communism in the Middle East. Thus, the Middle East was caught in an explosive situation.

USSR believed that Zionism was an instrument of Western Imperial Policy, but they also felt that the urban people in Palestine could be effectively used for the spread of Marxism in the Arab countries.

Bandung Conference – In April 1955, the Prime Ministers of India, Pakistan, Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia, invited 29 countries to an Asian African conference at Bandung in Indonesia. Most of the Arab countries were invited. Israel was not invited, but communist China was invited. Among the Afro-Asia leaders were Dr. Sukarno – the host, Pandit Nehru, Colonel Nasser, Chou-en-Lai. The Conference provided a platform for voicing anti colonial feelings and expressing feelings against communist imperialism.

The conference besides suggesting methods of economic cooperation declared full support to principles of human rights set forth by UN Charter. It supported the Arabs in their struggle with Israel and thus Colonel Nasser had successfully mobilized ‘Third World’ opinion in favor of Arabs. He was assured of public support.

Aswan High Dam Scheme – Egypt undertook a scheme for economic development in 1953. Nasser’s favorite scheme of the construction of the Aswan High Dam figured in the reconstruction plan. The estimated cost was about two billion dollars. The US government worked out a plan with world bank to provide foreign aid. A joint offer was announced on 16 December 1953. Egypt publicly accepted the offer. This announcement created a similar desire among other Arab countries for Americans and Nasser’s ambition was to establish an Arab Empire excited tehri envy.

Other difficulties included dividing Nile waters, settling the question of Israel.

The Aswan Dam was beneficial to a large number of people in a backward country and it was politically effective to contain communism. The US government was ready to oblige Egypt.

Egypt Armament Program – However, it was discovered that Nasser had been involved in a deal with USSR to buy military equipment worth $200 million. This payment was to be made against Egyptian cotton. Nasser had already completed the deal in 1955 and was now arranging another. Therefore, the very purpose of American aid would be defeated.

The Ambassador of Egypt took it for granted that the US was committed to the deal and mentioned to the US Secretary of state that if they didn’t finish the money, USSR would. US withdrew the aid. Nasser was furious and declared that he would allow the dollar to rule Egypt. He at a large meeting at Alexandria in 1956 announced that there was an attempt to destroy Arab Nationalism. He said (that) he had signed a resolution nationalizing the Suez Canal. With its income, Egypt would not need American aid.

Suez Canal Crisis (1956) – During the three years before nationalization of the Suez Canal Company, the aggressive Arab Nationalism in Syria, Jordan, Egypt alarmed Israel. Nationalization of the canal which affected the western powers but US was willing to help them find a peaceful solution. Relations between US and Britain were strained due to the Palestine partition, Saudi government’s claim over a part of Eastern Arabian principalities under British protection.

The nationalization was obviously in retaliation for the American refusal to supply funds for the Aswan Dam. President Eisenhower did not wish to aggravate the matter because the presidential elections were to take place in November 1956, and he did not want to appear as a war mongering candidate.

Soviet Russia could not take up the Arab cause as it was busy suppressing revolts in Poland and Hungary.

On 16 August 1956, an international conference of 24 nations, 16 users of the canal, and signatories of the Constantinople Convention, was held in London. It was agreed that an international board would govern the canal.

Second Arab Israel War – In the meantime, Egypt (1950s) raided Israel who had developed a port at Elaton Gulf of Alaska which was its only Southern outlet to the sea, because Egypt had stopped Israel from using the Suez Canal. But Egypt blocked the entrance to the Gulf of Aqaba as well. In July 19956, Egypt seized the Suez Canal from British and French owners. Israel retaliated by occupying the Sinai Peninsular on 29 October 1956 and the Egyptian forces were routed. On 39 October 1956, the Anglo French campaign began and Egyptian air bases were bombed.

On the same day, the US adopted an anti-imperialist stand and opposed the military action of Israel, Britain, France. It demanded a ceasefire and proposed that the UN forces should temporarily take charge of affected area. It was adopted and ceasefire came into effect on 6 November 1956.

Conclusion – The conflict had continued through the decades right up till the present day. Arab opposition towards Israel had been activated by Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) that represents Palestinian Arabs. The problem is a complex one involving several nations and their own motives and whether there lies a long-term solution to the problem, only time will tell.

REZA SHAH & MODERNISATION OF IRAN

Introduction – Only 85% of Iranians lived in villages and about 15% of the population who were landlords held most of the land. The terrain is mountainous; therefore, agriculture is difficult. Even in villages and towns, few families were powerful. Society was feudal. The position of the clergy was very high. Education was almost absent. They followed a very restrictive form of Islam.

Rule of Kajars – The Kajars were a Turkish tribe who came to Iran in 1794 A.D. They defeated several other tribes and established a dynastic monarchy in Iran.

They made Tehran their capital and though in the early 1800s Napoleon attempted to size the area, he was unable to defeat the Kajars.

By the early twentieth century, Russia moved into Northern Iran which upset Britain. England also attempted to get spheres of influence in Iran.

In 1907, Britain and Russia signed the Anglo-Russian Convention. Accordingly, the northern part of Iran was to be under Russian influence and the Southern part under British influence. The middle sphere remained neutral.

In 1917, when Russia pulled out of the war, she lost her position in Iran and British influence these became paramount.

By now the Kajar rulers were heavily in debt through European banking institutions. There was tremendous corruption and economic exploitation in the Imperial Tobacco Company. There was corruption in the Government and socially and economically it remained very backward.

Rise to power – Reza Shah was born in 1878 in a village North East of Tehran. His original name was Reza Khan. He came from a military background and joined the Cassock Brigade of the Iranian army. He had not much formal education. As an excellent soldier he rose swiftly in the ranks. He ended up as commander in the Cassock Brigade.

In 1921, there was an uprising in Iran led by Zir-ud-din Taka Bey (a former newspaper editor) who seized power and disposed off the Shah. Reza Shah was made his minister of war. Three months after the revolution Reza Shah forced Taka Bey to flee Iran.

The Shah of Iran was reinstated, and Reza Shah became the Prime Minister.

In 1923, Reza Shah advised the Shah of Iran to take an European tour. While he was away, Reza declared himself Shah of Iran.

By 1925, Reza Shah had crowned himself the Shah of Iran. The Muslim clergy initially opposed him, but he made the Majlis (Parliament) pass a decree declaring him as Shah and making it compulsory that he be accepted as the Shah. He then began dismissing potential opposers and gave important positions to his supporters.

Reza Shah was attracted by the material aspects of the West and glorified the old Achaemenid and Sassaned ancient empires of Iran. He also wanted to reintroduce Zoroastrianism.

Reforms – Reza Shah reestablished and reorganized a central authority using the army, he forced several tribes to accept his authority and troops were stationed in rebellious provinces.

Economy – To reform finances he invited Dr. Arthus Millsplough (US Economist) to be the advisor administrator general of finances of Iran.

Millsplough was given Cabinet Minister status and total control over Iran’s finances. No expenditure, grants, financial or trade agreements could be made without Millsplough’s permission.

By 1927, Millsplough balanced the budget, reorganized the tax structure and improved economic conditions.

By this time Iran was stable and earning steady income from trade. Only when the economic stability was instituted, Reza Shah began introducing reforms.

Transport and communications – He introduced reforms in transport and communication. He constituted the Trans-Iranian policy that linked Tehran to the Caspian Sea and this increased trade.

The railway began in 1927 and was completed in 1939. What is special is that it was completely financed by Iranian funds. Foreigners were consulted only in technical aspects and in the same way other highways and rail links were built.

Air services were improved, and airmail post was started between Tehran and outlying provinces. In 1938, Imperial Airways was allowed to fly from India to Iraq via Iran.

Security and trade increased, and economy flourished.

 Reorganization of the army – Reza Shah paid a great deal of attention to the army. He reorganized the structure, introduced strict discipline, and regularized salaries. Along with the army he defeated provincial rebellions including those in Khorasan and Azerbaijan. He continued the Kurdish tribes and did not allow them even semi-autonomy.

Communists were severely dealt with. By 1925, Reza Shah had assured himself no opposition through the army.

Social and Educational Reforms – He concentrated on education because he believed that modernization meant material wealth and progressive thinking. He broke the hold of religion on education and set up a new judicial system free from religious domination. Civil courts were based on the structure of frame. He reduced the power of the clergy and he attempted to secularize Iran. To appease the clergy, Islam was reorganized as the official religion and the Jafaratites tribe was considered most important. All laws made by the majlis had to be in keeping with Islamic traditions. Primary education was made compulsory, and many schools were built. This experiment failed because of lack of teachers. The Iranian University had six faculties including Theology. The school curriculum stressed patriotism, civil mindedness, and love for the king.

Several Christian missionaries set up schools, but Reza Shah realized that they were trying to spread Christianity. He immediately had them banished from Iran. This was a tremendous setback for education.

He encouraged sports, build stadiums, and made boy scouting and girl guiding compulsory. Patriotism was constantly stressed and extra-curricular activities were introduced to keep students away from politics.

In 1928, Reza Shah banned oriental dressing and the fez cap. Western clothes, and the European hat were propagated.

Reforms for Women – According to a decree of the Majlis, women and men were equal. Women were given divorce rights and were encouraged to dress in the western style. They were encouraged to hold public offices but not to enter politics. He also banned the purdah which resulted in rioting. He used the army to crush the opposition. Women no longer wore veils.

Literature – Reza Shah revised the Persian language, doing away with Arabic words. Persian continued to be written in the Arabic script. He started the Iranian Academy of Literature.

Media – The press was expected to propagate Reza Shah’s reforms. Only four daily newspapers existed. By 1940, Government owned Radio broadcasting began.

In 1935, Reza Shah changed the name of Persia to Iran.

Industrialization – Iran had a predominantly agrarian economy and two third of the land was held by landlords. Therefore, land reforms were introduced. Irrigation projects started and modern techniques were used. Much progress was not made. Reza Shah therefore turned to industrialization. Industries were set up for sugar, spinning and weaving of cotton, canning of meant and fish products, cement industries and chemical factories.

Most were government owned and their efficiency and capacity for products differed. Cost of production was high and inspite of so many industries, Iran still imported many goods.

Reza Shah also set up management institutes.

Oil – The Anglo Persian Oil Company was started. In time the Company fixed the Royalty payments.

Criticism – Reza Shah was strict with the Iranian Bureaucracy and genuinely wanted to reform Iran. He was the only one capable of doing this. He tolerated no opposition. Thus, he became alienated from reality because he allowed only good things to be said about himself. There was no one to point out the defects in his reforms. Many of his reforms failed because people were not ready to accept them, and Reza Shah was not sensitive to social attitudes. He also collected huge personal fortunes and when the Second World War broke out, he annoyed the allies.

In 1941, the allies invaded Iran, deposed off Reza Shah and banished him to South Africa. He died there in exile. His son Muhammed Shah Pehlevi succeeded him as Shah.

Inspite of all these defects, it must be admitted that Reza Shah who almost single handedly brought a poor and backward nation like Iran aboard the modern world, was one of the greatest figures of Persian History.