Showing posts with label Political Concepts. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Political Concepts. Show all posts

Wednesday, 12 January 2022

NATION

A nation is a body of people, inhabiting a definite territory, share common features such as race, language, a common history, religion, etc. and a common will which leads them to desire a common state. 

‘Nationality’ is the distinctive quality of a group which has a common origin and tradition. The group shares common characteristics and most of all possesses a will to live together as a sovereign group. Therefore when a nationality of people assert their political right to widen – or political determination, they form a nation state.

Thus the feeling of ‘nationalism’ is a subjective one where in the people feel connected to each other because of shared characteristics – it is a sentiment, a consciousness created/nurtured by political, economic, social, intellectual, cultural factors. 

Thus in the 18th and 19th century most states were formed on the basis of nationality – groups that shared a common language, religion, etc. formed a nation – state. (Unification of Germany = German speaking; Netherlands = rel.)

Thus the following elements usually constitute the formation of a nation.

(1)  GEOGRAPHICAL UNITY

According to Hertz and Barker, geographical unity leads to the formation of a nation. Thus islands for example are more likely to be nation states.

Eg. Australia, Sri Lanka

But geographical unity is not necessary. Eg. The Jews considered themselves a nation for 100’s of years though they possessed a geographical state only after 1948.

 

(2)  UNITY OF LANGUAGE

Since language is used for expression and communication, a common language helps to promote nation. Ramsay Muir considers language the most important element of a nation.

But nations like India, UK, Switzerland have several languages.

 

(3)  RACE

Political determination on the basis of race was very important in the 19th and 20th century. Thus Zummerman, Bryce, Burgess consider it a very important element. It influenced the formation of Poland (1919), Israel.

Today few states are really ‘racially pure’ and hence race is considered less important.

 

(4)  RELIGION

A shared religion indicates not just a shared form of worship but also influences philosophy and determines culture. Hence religion can be a very powerful building force. The creation of  Pakistan was completely dependent on religion.

Today, though most states are religiously heterogeneous, religious conflicts and separatist movements on the basis of religion often surfaces.

 

(5)  SHARED HISTORY

A common past, particularly a traumatic one often leads to the development of nationality or a feeling of oneness. Eg. The common anti-British feeling that resulted from colonization brought Indians together to fight for a separate independent state.

 

According to Hertz, none of these elements are necessarily determinants of nationalism. According to him (1) People should have desire to be one nation

                                            (2) People should endeavour for unity and strength.

 

NATIONALITY                                                                 STATEHOOD

-          Subjective                                                                  - objective

-          psychological                                                             - political / legal cond.

-          cond. of mind                                                             - cond. of law

-          can only be encouraged not forced                            - enforceable obligation

 

Nationalism carried too far can be dangerous. It can lead to an exclusive policy – where only those seen as being of ‘pure’ nationality should be members of the state. Extreme nationalism (like Fascism) can elevate the concept of nation at the cost of its people.

Vladimir Solovyer – “In its extreme form it destroys a nation, for it makes it the enemy of mankind…”

Nationalism when expressed as a single religion/ pure raceetc. Always leads to conflict.

Nationalism also encouraged minorities to demand separate states (sessation)

 

SYMBOLS OF NATIONALISM

Snyder – “Nationalism is not innate instinct but rather a socially conditioned, synthetic sentiment.” Therefore it requires symbols.

Slogans, songs, flags, uniform, emblems, parades.

A NATIONAL CHARACTER – does it exist?

An outsider’s notion of the people of another nation. Greek writers considered the citizens of Sparta to be disciplined – can one really affix characteristics to a nation?

McDougall – Each national group has its own genius and its character is conditioned by geographical peculiarities, religion, etc. He says every race has inherent mental abilities which are permanent and influence its national character. English – reserved; Italians – gregarious; Indians – fatalist. Does that mean that one cannot find reserved Indians or gregarious Englishmen?

Given today’s multiethnic states, it is rather difficult to ascribe a particular trait to a nation. Also every nation changes with its history and therefore its character is also dynamic. Thus is national character only a stereotype?

Friday, 24 September 2021

DEMOCRACY IN INDIA

Is India fit for democracy?

British did not consider India capable of democracy – too traditional, dynastic, illiterate, fatalistic, etc. It was a philosophy and practice alien to India where a monarch of dominant group exercised power while the rest accepted and followed it. Thus when democracy was introduced in India it did not grow / develop as a response to people’s needs.

Yet the overall assessment over 60 years is that India has adopted democracy. The parliamentary system, independent judiciary and electoral process etc. was seen as the only workable type of government for such a diverse country. Therefore it was adopted even before independence.

FACTORS THAT PROMOTE DEMOCRACY / SIGNS THAT DEMOCRACY IS HEALTHY IN INDIA

-         Regular elections at the municipal, state and national level since 1950

-         Growth of several political parties representing and expressing the views of different sections of society

-         Largely uninterrupted parliamentary government (especially when compared to Pakistan, Burma etc., which have frequently lapsed into dictatorship) (Except 70s emergency)

-         Non political Armed Force – not interested in political power (therefore no coups)

-         Increasingly assertive press – much freer than most afro Asian countries

-         Decentralization and strengthening of local government bodies – Panchayati Raj – taking democracy to the grass root level.

IMPEDIMENTS

-         Illiteracy – information cannot be verified, manipulate voters, people not aware of their rights, cannot use the law to protect themselves, unaware of political practices, duties, etc.

-         Poverty – subsistence level cannot be bothered by politics / easily exploited / voters are ‘bought’.

-         Over population and migration – very expensive elections, huge numbers of voters, personnel, booths, counting, etc., movement of population, voting lists have to be reviewed, huge no. of people cannot vote because they are not in their constituencies.

-         Group interest over national interest – voting for parties for the benefit of a group, narrow interests rather than national good, regional parties, reservation, bartering of votes for benefits etc, parties only concerned about single issues etc.

-         Criminalization of politics – candidates with criminal records, use of unfair methods for votes, booth-capturing, intimidation, corruption (continues within the government)

-         Apathy of voters – falling percentage of voter turnout especially in urban, educated, middle class areas.

-         Extraneous influences – religion, caste, language get mixed up with politics

-         Democracy does not guarantee the best government – voters could be duped, post election alliances, splitting of votes can result in a third party becoming the majority.

ROLE OF EDUCATION

‘Democracy can never be successful without education’. The process requires one to understand one’s rights, duties, information on how the system works, to live as civilised citizens – exercise franchise with maturity, understanding and analysis of the agenda of each party.

‘Democratic government demands an educated people’ – Hetherington

‘Democracy in its modern form would be quite impossible in a nation where men cannot read – Bertrand Russell

Also required for social equality (doing away with prejudice) and economic opportunity.

ROLE OF PRESS

-         Extremely important

-         Education about democracy and political system, mass education

-         Enables communication – people to their government and parties / government to carry their message to the people

-         Highlights, debates important national issues

-         Watch dog on the government and parties

Free Press – not a government mouth piece

Free press should exercise responsibility, sensitivity, should not instigate trouble especially against communities or castes etc.

 

Friday, 20 August 2021

ACCOUNTABILITY

Accountability is an obligation to answer for the execution of one’s assigned responsibilities. In simpler terms, accountability is reporting. People account, or report to other people.

The basic ingredients of successful accountability relationships are as follows:

Set measurable goals and responsibilities.

Plan what needs to be done to achieve goals

Do the work and monitor progress.

Report on results

Evaluate results and provide feedback.

Accountability relationships exist among the Government, the Legislative Assembly and the various operating entities owned or controlled by the Government, including departments, boards, and agencies. The Government has to incorporate a healthy accountability framework.

Effective accountability means that those managing public resources depend on sound information, not speculation, when determining the effectiveness of Government’s programs. Decision makers must evaluate performance and rationalize resource allocations to programs.

Measuring and reporting on the effectiveness of public sector programs is just the beginning. A sound basis has to be established for linking costs to outcomes, permitting a more comprehensive assessment of performance and value for money. Accountability is necessary when responsibility is assigned, and authority is delegated.

The information is presented in a way that can eb understood by users and is sufficient to provide an appropriate understanding of an organization’s performance. All forms of accountability reporting should present information on outputs. Expected results need to be clearly expressed and must be measurable.

A ministry accountability report should include all provincial organizations accountable to the Minister. Each organization and fund accountable to a Minister should prepare plans (including budgets) and performance reports.

Performance reports (such as financial statements and annual reports) should compare actual to planned results.

Key accountability reports, including plans, budgets, financial statements and annual reports should be made public. The government is responsible and accountable to the electorate. To make this accountability relationship work, the electorate must rely on its elected representatives to ensure that necessary accountability information is made public.

Information tabled in the Legislative Assembly is public and therefore promotes accountability to the Legislative Assembly and to the people. An effective accountability framework for India should require the tabling of all key accountability reports.

Accountability reports which should be tabled in the Legislative Assembly include each Ministry and each operating entity. The main elements of an effective accountability framework should be legislated.

People may be reluctant to produce accountability information when expected results are not achieved. Ministries and the organizations within them, therefore, must be required to produce accountability information. To ensure lasting and timely compliance, the major elements of the framework should eb legislated. Also, the policies of a Ministry or an organization should set out the accountability framework within that organization.

 

Monday, 1 June 2020

CENTRAL VIGILANCE COMMISSION


Central Vigilance Commission (CVC) is an apex Indian governmental body created in 1964 to address governmental corruption. It has the status of an autonomous body, free of control from any executive authority. It monitors all vigilance activity under the Central Government of India and advises various authorities in Central Government organizations in planning, executing, reviewing, and reforming their vigilance work.

It was set up by the Government of India in February 1964 on the recommendations of the Committee on Prevention of Corruption, headed by Shri K. Santhanam, to advise and guide Central Government agencies in the field of vigilance. Nittoor Srinivasa Rau, was selected as the first Chief Vigilance Commissioner of India.

The Annual Report of the CVC gives the details of the work done by it and brings out the system failures that lead to corruption in various Departments / Organizations, system improvements, various preventive measures and cases in which the Commission's advises were ignored etc.

The CVC is not an investigating agency - it gets the investigation done through the CBI or through the Departmental Chief Vigilance Officers

Powers and Functions of CVC

- to exercise superintendence over the functioning of the Delhi Special Police Establishment (DSPE) with respect to investigation under the Prevention of Corruption Act, 1988; or offence under CRPC for certain categories of public servants and to give directions to the DSPE for purpose of discharging this responsibility.

- To review the progress of investigations conducted by the DSPE into offences alleged to have been committed under the PC Act.

- To undertake an inquiry or cause an inquiry or investigation to be made into any transaction in which a public servant working in any organization, to which the executive control of the Government of India extends, is suspected or alleged to have acted for an improper purpose or in a corrupt manner.

- To tender independent and impartial advice to the disciplinary and other authorities in disciplinary cases, involving vigilance angle at different stages i.e. investigation, inquiry, appeal, review etc.

- To exercise a general check and supervision over vigilance and anti-corruption work in Ministries or Departments of the Govt. of India and other organizations to which the executive power of the Union extends

- To chair the Committee for selection of Director (CBI), Director (Enforcement Directorate) and officers of the level of SP and above in DSPE.

- To undertake or cause an inquiry into complaints received under the Public Interest Disclosure and Protection of Informer and recommend appropriate action.










Sunday, 17 March 2019

FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS (INDIA)



Part III (Articles 12 – 30) contain the fundamental rights of Indian citizens.

Our Fundamental Rights are as follows:
-          Right to Equality – Articles 14 to 18
-          Right to Freedom – Articles 19 to 22
-          Right Against Exploitation – Articles 23 to 24
-          Right to Freedom of Religion – Articles 25 to 28
-          Cultural and Educational Rights – Articles 29 to 30

Right to Equality

Article 14 – Equality before Law – This provision guarantees that the State shall not deny any person equality before law or equal protection of laws within the territory of India.

Article 15 – Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, gender, place of birth.

Article 16 – Equality in matters of public employment – guarantees equal opportunities for all citizens in matters relating to employment to any office under the State.

Article 17 – Abolition of Untouchability – prohibits untouchability in any form and such acts are an offence punishable in accordance with the law.

Article 18 – Abolition of Titles – No title shall be conferred by the state except for military and academic distinctions and no citizen of India shall accept any title from any foreign state.

Right to Freedom

Article 19 – Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech etc. – This article provides for all citizens the right
-          To freedom of speech and expression
-          To assemble peacefully without arms
-          To from associations or unions
-          To move freely throughout the territory of India
-          To reside and settle in any part of the territory of India
-          To practice any profession, occupation, trade or business.

Article 20 – Protection in respect of conviction of offences – protects citizens from ex-postfacto legislation, double jeopardy and self-witness.

Article 21 – Protection of life and personal liberty – no person shall be deprived of his life or personal liberty except according to the procedure established by law.

Article 21 A – Right to education – State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age 6 to 14.

Article 22 – Protection against arbitrary arrest and detention – no person shall be detained in custody without being informed of the ground on which he has been arrested. He will not be denied the right to consult a lawyer of his choice.

Right to Freedom of Religion

Article 25 – Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.

Article 26 – Freedom to manage religious affairs.

Article 27 – Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.

Article 28 – Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions – guarantees that no religious instruction shall be provided in any educational institution maintained wholly out of state funds. Also a person attending an educational institution maintained partially out of state funds or recognized by the state cannot be compelled by the institution to attend religious instruction without consent of his or her guardian.


ELECTION COMMISSION (INDIA) DUTIES



1.       The Election Commission prepares the General Electoral Roll for the country comprising adult citizens who have registered themselves as voters. When the Electoral Roll is drafted, the Election Commission makes it available to the public through the internet as well as through special centers established for the same. This gives the people a chance to check whether their names are correct and are a part of the electoral roll.

2.       The Election Commission calls for an All Party Meeting to discuss the Poll Dates.

3.       The Election Commission meets the outgoing Prime Minister to determine whether General Elections would be practicable and feasible in the light of current national issues and circumstances.

4.       The Election Commission welcomes suggestions for Political parties regarding ways in which the conduct of elections may be improved.

5.       The Election Commission prepares a schedule for elections in a way that minimum inconvenience is caused to people and at the same time it is administratively feasible.

6.       The Election Commission ensures that the polls are free and fair, people are able to exercise their vote independently and that a law and order situation is avoided.

7.       The Election Commission organizes polling in ‘phases’ because of the huge size of Indian territory and population.

8.       Polls in different states are held on different dates within the same time frame.

9.       The Code of Conduct prescribed by the Election Commission comes into force when the Election Dates are declared. The Code of Conduct is a list of do’s and don’ts to be adhered to by all political parties contesting elections.

10.   According to the rule set down by the Election Commission. Campaigning must end forty eight hours before polling closes.

Tuesday, 19 February 2019

LOCAL SELF GOVERNMENT - INDIA


Local Self Government means a government elected by the local people to administrate local issues.

India practices different systems of local self government in rural and urban areas. In rural areas Local Self Government is called ‘Panchayati Raj’. In urban areas Local Self Government is called ‘Municipalities’.

Article 40 of the Directive Principles of State Policy specifies ‘The State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government’.

Panchayats and Municipalities existed in different parts of India even before passing the 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts in 1992. Prior to 1992, different parts of India followed different indigenous forms of Panchayats and Municipalities and hence there was no uniformity in structure and composition of local self-government across of different regions. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts constitutionalized Local Self Government and made it compulsory across India. It also introduced regulations on structures, processes and jurisdictions.

The Provisions of Panchayati Raj in India under the Constitution (Seventy-third Amendment) Act, 1992
1.       Strengthen Gram Sabha as the foundation of Panchayati Raj. Gram Sabha consists of people registered in the electoral role of a village with the area of a village panchayat.
2.       Establishment of three tier system of panchayat: Gram Panchayat at village level, Zilla Panchayat (Parishad) at District level and Taluk Panchayat (Panchayat Samiti) functions as an Intermediate body between the two.
3.       To maintain and streamline the organization and functions of the three tiers of panchayat raj.
4.       Panchayat at intermediate level may not be constituted in a State having a population not exceeding 20 lakhs.
5.       All seats in panchayat shall be filled by persons chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the area.
6.       Provision for direct elections for members of Panchayat, panchayat samities and Zilla Parishads and their heads. However, chairpersons of Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads were to be elected indirectly.
7.       Reservation of seats in Panchayati Raj for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. One third seats were reserved for women.
8.       One third offices of Sarpanch of panchayat and heads of Panchayat Samities and Zilla Parishads of a state also reserved for women.
9.       Panchayati Raj – fixed tenure of 5 years. In case of dissolution, the new institution will enjoy the remaining tenure of the previous institution.
10.   Responsibility for conducting elections of Panchayati Raj of a state lies with the State Election Commission.
11.   Panchayats were given more functions and in order to perform these functions additional finances and revenue sources were provided.
Functions allotted to Panchayats are as follows:
1.       Agriculture, including agricultural extension
2.       Land improvement, implementation of land reforms, land consolidation and soil conservation
3.       Minor irrigation, water management and watershed development
4.       Animal husbandry, dairy and poultry
5.       Fisheries
6.       Social forestry and farm forestry
7.       Minor forest produce
8.       Small scale industries, including food processing industries
9.       Khadi, village and cottage industries
10.   Rural housing
11.   Drinking water
12.   Fuel and fodder
13.   Roads, culverts, bridges, ferries, waterways and other means of communication
14.   Rural electrification, including distribution of electricity
15.   Non conventional energy sources
16.   Poverty alleviation program
17.   Education, including primary and secondary schools
18.   Technical training and vocational education
19.   Adult and non formal education
20.   Libraries
21.   Cultural activities
22.   Markets and fairs
23.   Health and sanitation, including hospitals, primary health centers and dispensaries
24.   Family welfare
25.   Women and child development
26.   Social welfare, including welfare of the handicapped and mentally retarded
27.   Welfare of the weaker sections and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
28.   Public distribution system
29.   Maintenance of community assets.

Provisions for Municipalities in India under the Constitution (Seventy Forth Amendment) Act, 1992
1.       Establishment of a tri-vertical system of Municipalities: Municipal Corporation for a larger urban area, Municipal Council for a smaller urban area and a Nagar Panchayat for an area in transition from a rural to urban area
2.       To maintain and streamline the organization and functions of the three types of municipalities
3.       All the seats in a Municipality shall be filled by persons chosen by direct elections from the territorial constituencies in the Municipal are. For this purpose, the Municipal area is divided into territorial constituencies known as wards.
4.       The legislature of a state may, by law, provide for the representation in a municipality of: persons having special knowledge or experience in Municipal Administration, the members of the House of People and member of the Legislative Assembly, the members of the Council of States and members of Legislative Council of the state.
5.       Constitution of Ward Committees, consisting of one or more wards within the territorial area of a Municipality having a population of three lakhs or more
6.       Reservations of seats in Municipalities for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. One third seats reserved for women
7.       Municipalities enjoy a fixed tenure of five years and in case of dissolution, the new institution will enjoy the remaining tenure of the previous institutions.
8.       Responsibility for conducting elections of the Municipal bodies of a state lies with the State Election Commission.
9.       Municipalities were given more functions and to enable them to perform these duties additional finance and revenue sources were provided.
Functions allotted to Municipalities are as follows:
1.       Urban planning including town planning
2.       Regulation of land-use and construction of buildings
3.       Planning for economic and social development
4.       Roads and bridges
5.       Water supply for domestic, industrial and commercial purposed
6.       Public health, sanitation, conservancy and solid waste management
7.       Fire services
8.       Urban forestry, protection of the environment and promotion of ecological aspects
9.       Safeguarding the interests of weaker sections of society, including handicapped and mentally retarded.
10.   Slum improvement and upgradation
11.   Urban poverty alleviation
12.   Provision of urban amenities and facilities such as parks, gardens, playgrounds
13.   Promotion of cultural, educational and aesthetic aspects.
14.   Burial and burial grounds; cremations, cremation grounds and electric crematoriums.
15.   Cattle pounds, prevention of cruelty to animals
16.   Vital statistics including registration of births and deaths
17.   Public amenities including street lighting, parking lots, bus stops and public conveniences.
18.   Regulation of slaughter houses and tanneries.

Friday, 4 January 2019

Society, State-Society Relations


The word ‘society’ comes from the Latin word ‘Socius’ which means a companion, organization or association. Society refers to a union where people live in a community or society and does not exist in loneliness. Society is used in the sense of a cluster too – for e.g. Rural society or urban society.

In order for society to exist, there has to be a population. Without people society cannot be shaped as society is based on a system of relationships. Society is intangible (cannot be touched) in nature.

According to the Cambridge Dictionary, ‘Society is formed by a large group of people who live together in an organized way, making decisions about how to do things, and sharing the work that needs to be done. All the people in a country, or in several similar countries, can be referred to a society’.

Characteristics of Society

Society is dynamic – Old customs, traditions, values and institutions get transformed and new customs and values take their place.

Likeness – Similarities are common. If there is not mutual recognition of belonging together, there can be no society.

Cooperation and conflict – Cooperation is essential for the formation and smooth functioning of society. Without cooperation there will be chaos and thus no society. Conflict works as a cementing factor to reinforce social relations and is necessary in a society.

Wide-ranging culture – culture is a way of life for members of a society and includes, values, beliefs, art, morals, etc.

Differences – while there are similarities, differences also enhance the social life of the people. E.g. division of labor

Inter-dependence – the survival and well-being of each member depends on the well-being of the other members of society. Man depends on his society for food, shelter, security and other needs.

Thus, society is a network of social relationships.

State-Society Relations

Department for International Development (London) defines state-society relations as ‘interactions between state institutions and societal groups to negotiate how public authority is exercised and how it can be influenced by people. They are focused on issues such as defining the mutual rights and obligations of state and society, negotiation how public resources should be allocated and establishing different modes of representation and accountability’.

Citizenship allows citizens benefits like the right to vote, to hold office, to participate in political processes, to access education, health and other benefits, to own businesses, land, security and freedom on movement.

Thus, state refers to the political dominion of legitimate compulsion (coercive) and society refers to the dominion of voluntary interaction.

State


A state is a political association that enjoys control over a definite geographical area. For example, Indian state – Government of India exercises control over all individuals, groups, associations within its geographical boundaries.

A state is also considered as any institution that can legitimately exercise force over people in a certain geographical area – for example, Indian Judiciary, Indian Police, Military, use force to establish law and order among citizens in any part of India.

Aristotle defines ‘state’ as ‘a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life by which we mean a happy and honorable life’.

Woodrow Wilson defines ‘state’ as ‘the people organized for law within a definite territory’.

Dimensions of State

1.       State is a union of different individuals, groups , families and sections of society. State provides the legal bond that holds society together.

2.       State has a purpose. State is created for a reason: to enable individuals to have a better life. If there is no state there will be lawlessness and disorder. Therefore, state establishes law and order and secures people’s basic human rights.

3.       The state comprises of four elements:
a.       Population – State exists for the people. No population, no state.
b.       Territory – State has a fixed geographical area where people reside and government exercises control.
c.       Government – State creates and executes laws so that there is order in society.
d.       Sovereignty – Government has independence of functioning i.e. free from any external or foreign influence.

4.       State institutions should command people’s obedience. People should be loyal by obeying the laws and following government policies.

5.       State should have a degree of permanence i.e. it should have secure territorial boundaries.

6.       State should have Military capabilities – Army, Navy and Air Force to defend its people and territory in case of foreign attack.

7.       State should be organized. In India we have the Constitution, a government, judiciary, public administrative system, laws and regulations.

8.       State reconciles individualism with communitarianism – it forms a balance between individual needs and community needs. For e.g. the right to speech and expressions should not be used to insult others or hurt sentiments or provoke violence.

9.       The term state can be used to imply a political sub unit – 29 states in India – Rajasthan, Maharashtra, etc.

10.   State is different from country and nation. According to Political Science, ‘country’ is referred to a geographical area, and ‘nation’ is a community of people who share a sense of belonging to each other (oneness, unity).